6. Learning

6. Learning

1. 1. TYPES OF LEARNING

   • Learning
     • = a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
     • Behaviorism
       • = a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping
       • define learning as relatively stable, observable changes in behavior
       • 2 types of learning
         • Associative learning
           • = occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events
             • Conditioning
               • = the process of learning these associations
                 • Classical conditioning
                   • Organisms learn the association between two stimuli. As a result of this association, organisms learn to anticipate events
                 • Operant conditioning
                   • Organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence, such as a reward. As a result of this association, organisms learn to increase behaviors that are followed by rewards and to decrease behaviors that are followed by punishment
         • Observational learning
           • = The learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another's behavior

2. 2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

   • Reflexes
     • = such automatic stimulus–response connections
     • Unconditioned stimulus (US)
       • = A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
       • Unconditioned response (UR)
         • = An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the US
         • Conditioned stimulus (CS)
           • = A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
           • Conditioned response (CR)
             • = The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS–US pairing
               • PAvlov 1927
             • Acquisition
               • = The initial learning of the connection between the US and CS when these two stimuli are paired
                 • classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs without awareness or effort, based on the presentation of two stimuli together
                   • For pairing to work, importance of:
                     • Contiguity
                       • = the CS and US are presented very close together in time
                     • Contingency
                       • = the CS must not only precede the US closely in time, it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way
               • Sign tracking
                 • = pattern of behavior indicating an unusually high level of attachment to the CS
               • Generalization
                 • = The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
                   • has value preventing learning from being tied to specific stimuli
                 • Discrimination
                   • = the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others
                   • Extinction
                     • = The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent
                     • Spontaneous recovery
                       • = The process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning
                       • Renewal
                         • = The recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context
                         • Breaking habits
                           • Counterconditioning
                             • = a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response
                           • Aversive conditioning
                             • = A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus
                           • Placebo effect
                             • = observable changes (such as a drop in pain) that cannot be explained by the effects of an actual treatment
                             • Immune and endocrine systems
                               • Immunosuppression
                                 • = A decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person's ability to fight disease
                                 • Endocrin system
                                   • = A loosely organized set of glands that produce and circulate hormones
                                   • Taste aversion
                                     • = a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea
                                       • the taste or flavor is the CS; the agent that made the person sick (it could be a rollercoaster ride or salmonella, for example) is the US; nausea or vomiting is the UR; and taste aversion is the CR
                                     • Habituation
                                       • = the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
                               • Ader & Cohen

3. 3. OPERANT CONDITIONING

   • = A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence
     • Skinner 1938
     • Contingency
     • Thorndike's Law of Effect (1898)
       • Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened
       • Shaping
         • = rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior
         • Reinforcement
           • = The process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again
             • Positive -> followed by a desirable stimulus
             • Negative-> Followed by the removal of something undesirable
           • Avoidance learning
             • = When the organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided
             • Learned helplessness
               • = The organism has learned that it has no control over negative outcomes
                 • Seligman 1976)
               • Primary reinforcer
                 • innately satisfying; that is, a primary reinforcer does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable
               • Secondary reinforcer
                 • acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer
               • Generalization
                 • = performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation
                 • Discrimination
                   • Extinction
                     • = occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency
                     • Reinforcement
                       • COntinuous reinfotcement
                       • Schedules of reinforcement
                         • specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
                           • Fixed-ratio schedule
                             • reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors
                           • Variable-ratio schedule
                             • produce high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction than the other three schedules
                           • Fixed interval schedule
                             • reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed
                           • Variable interval
                             • a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed
                       • Partial reinforcement
                         • a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time
                       • Punishment
                         • = A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur
                         • Positive punishment
                           • a behavior decreases when it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus
                         • Negative punishement
                           • a behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed
                         • Applied behavior analysis / Behavior modification
                           • = the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior
                             • If we can figure out what rewards and punishers are controlling a person's behavior, we can change them—and eventually the behavior itself
                   • responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced

4. 4. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

   • Observational/Imitation/modeling learning
     • = Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior
       • 4 processes
         • Attention
         • Retention
         • Motor reproduction
         • Reinforcement
           • Vicarious reinforcement
           • Vicarious punishment
           • whether the model's behavior is followed by a consequence

5. 5. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING

   • EC Tolman 1932
     • Purposiveness of behavior
       • the idea that much of behavior is goaldirected
       • The organism acquires certain expectations
       • Latent/ Implicit learning
         • = Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
         • Kohler 1925
           • INsight learning
             • = A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution

6. 6. BIOLOGICAL CULTURAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

   • INstinctive drift
     • = the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
     • Perparedness
       • = The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others
       • Culture
         • Psychological constraints
           • Mindset (Dweck)
             • = the way our beliefs about ability dictate what goals we set for ourselves, what we think we can learn, and ultimately what we do learn
               • Fixed mindset
               • Growth mindset
                 • How to develop?
                   • Understand that your intelligence and thinking skills are not fixed but can change
                   • Become passionate about learning and stretch your mind in challenging situations
                   • Think about the growth mindsets of people you admire
                   • Begin now

7. 7. HEALTH AND WELLNESS

   • Stress and predictability
   • Stress and control
   • Stress and improvement
   • Outlets for frustration

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