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6. Learning

Florence Cellier Psicología English

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6. Learning

1. TYPES OF LEARNING
- Learning
  - = a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
  - Behaviorism
    - = a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping
    - define learning as relatively stable, observable changes in behavior
    - 2 types of learning
      - Associative learning
        = occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events
        Conditioning
        = the process of learning these associations
        Classical conditioning
        Organisms learn the association between two stimuli. As a result of this association, organisms learn to anticipate events
        Operant conditioning
        Organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence, such as a reward. As a result of this association, organisms learn to increase behaviors that are followed by rewards and to decrease behaviors that are followed by punishment
      - Observational learning
        = The learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another's behavior
2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
- Reflexes
  - = such automatic stimulus–response connections
  - Unconditioned stimulus (US)
    - = A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
    - Unconditioned response (UR)
      - = An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the US
      - Conditioned stimulus (CS)
        = A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
        Conditioned response (CR)
        = The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS–US pairing
        PAvlov 1927
        Acquisition
        = The initial learning of the connection between the US and CS when these two stimuli are paired
        classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs without awareness or effort, based on the presentation of two stimuli together
        For pairing to work, importance of:
        Contiguity
        = the CS and US are presented very close together in time
        Contingency
        = the CS must not only precede the US closely in time, it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way
        Sign tracking
        = pattern of behavior indicating an unusually high level of attachment to the CS
        Generalization
        = The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
        has value preventing learning from being tied to specific stimuli
        Discrimination
        = the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others
        Extinction
        = The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent
        Spontaneous recovery
        = The process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning
        Renewal
        = The recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context
        Breaking habits
        Counterconditioning
        = a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response
        Aversive conditioning
        = A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus
        Placebo effect
        = observable changes (such as a drop in pain) that cannot be explained by the effects of an actual treatment
        Immune and endocrine systems
        Immunosuppression
        = A decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person's ability to fight disease
        Endocrin system
        = A loosely organized set of glands that produce and circulate hormones
        Taste aversion
        = a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea
        the taste or flavor is the CS; the agent that made the person sick (it could be a rollercoaster ride or salmonella, for example) is the US; nausea or vomiting is the UR; and taste aversion is the CR
        Habituation
        = the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
        Ader & Cohen
3. OPERANT CONDITIONING
- = A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence
  - Skinner 1938
  - Contingency
  - Thorndike's Law of Effect (1898)
    - Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened
    - Shaping
      - = rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior
      - Reinforcement
        = The process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again
        Positive -> followed by a desirable stimulus
        Negative-> Followed by the removal of something undesirable
        Avoidance learning
        = When the organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided
        Learned helplessness
        = The organism has learned that it has no control over negative outcomes
        Seligman 1976)
        Primary reinforcer
        innately satisfying; that is, a primary reinforcer does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable
        Secondary reinforcer
        acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer
        Generalization
        = performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation
        Discrimination
        Extinction
        = occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency
        Reinforcement
        COntinuous reinfotcement
        Schedules of reinforcement
        specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
        Fixed-ratio schedule
        reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors
        Variable-ratio schedule
        produce high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction than the other three schedules
        Fixed interval schedule
        reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed
        Variable interval
        a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed
        Partial reinforcement
        a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time
        Punishment
        = A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur
        Positive punishment
        a behavior decreases when it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus
        Negative punishement
        a behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed
        Applied behavior analysis / Behavior modification
        = the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior
        If we can figure out what rewards and punishers are controlling a person's behavior, we can change them—and eventually the behavior itself
        responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced
4. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
- Observational/Imitation/modeling learning
  - = Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior
    - 4 processes
      - Attention
      - Retention
      - Motor reproduction
      - Reinforcement
        Vicarious reinforcement
        Vicarious punishment
        whether the model's behavior is followed by a consequence
5. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
- EC Tolman 1932
  - Purposiveness of behavior
    - the idea that much of behavior is goaldirected
    - The organism acquires certain expectations
    - Latent/ Implicit learning
      - = Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
      - Kohler 1925
        INsight learning
        = A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution
6. BIOLOGICAL CULTURAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
- INstinctive drift
  - = the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
  - Perparedness
    - = The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others
    - Culture
      - Psychological constraints
        Mindset (Dweck)
        = the way our beliefs about ability dictate what goals we set for ourselves, what we think we can learn, and ultimately what we do learn
        Fixed mindset
        Growth mindset
        How to develop?
        Understand that your intelligence and thinking skills are not fixed but can change
        Become passionate about learning and stretch your mind in challenging situations
        Think about the growth mindsets of people you admire
        Begin now
7. HEALTH AND WELLNESS
- Stress and predictability
- Stress and control
- Stress and improvement
- Outlets for frustration

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6. Learning

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