Relationships

Relationships

1. Formation

   • AO1
     • 1 theory of the formation of relationships is the Reward/Need Satisfaction theory
     • This suggests we are attracted to people who we think are satisfying to be with
     • Operant conditioning can be used to show we will want to be with someone who "rewards" us with things such as presents, dates, affection, etc
     • Classical conditioning suggests we are attracted to people who we associate a good mood with
   • AO2
     • This theory can be supported by research into the role of direct rewards in reltionships
     • Pps were evaluated on a creative task by an experimenter and were then asked to rate how much they liked the examiner
     • The pps' rating was higher when the examiner gave them a higher score
     • This shows how people are more attracted to people who give them "rewards"
   • AO2
     • This can be further supported by research into the role of reward and satisfaction
     • Asked 337 individuals to assess their relationship in terms of rewards and satisfaction
     • Results showed how reward level was superior to all other factors in determining relationships
   • IDA
     • An alternate explanation for this theory is the evolutionary approach
     • This suggests that the psychological rewards could be explained by the evolutionary need to focus energy on 1 person to speed up the mating process
     • This can also be used to explain why people are in relationships with those they don't necessarily find satisfying or rewarding
   • AO1
     • The similarity theory is another explanation for the formation of relationships
     • This suggests people are more likely to be attracted to people with similar attitudes and personalities, and avoid people who are dissimilar
   • AO2
     • Rosenbaum's research disputes this as it was suggested dissimilarity has a higher importance than similarity when choosing a partner
     • Participants were first attracted to each other because of the similarities they had but eventually became less attracted when they discovered there were many dissimilarities
   • IDA
     • An issue to consider when studying relationships is cultural bias, as in other cultures women focus more on the needs of others
     • The similarity theory is only applicable in cultures which place most importance on rewards
   • AO2
     • Yoshida's research also challenged the theory as it has a narrow view of which factors effect relationships
     • Similarity of self concept, economic level and physical condition were found to be equally important
     • Shows how the theory is not generalizable and applicable to all

2. Maintenance

   • AO1
     • One theory into relationship maintenance is Social Exchange Theory
     • Suggests Rewards-Costs=Outcome (either a profit or a loss)
     • CL (comparative level) is determined by past relationships and is used to judge how worthwhile our current relationship is
   • AO2
     • There is research to support the Social Exchange Theory
     • Rusbult and Martz's study found that when investments are high, such as children, financial security, etc, they are seen as profits
     • This can also be used to explain why some people stay in abusive relationships
   • AO2
     • There is research which disputes Social Exchange Theory, as it questions the importance of rewards
     • Duck and Sants questioned if people are only in relationships for selfish reasons, as opposed to wanting to be equal in the relationship
     • This criticises SET as the theory places too much importance on individual factors and completely ignores social factors
   • IDA
     • The theory has been found to be applicable to real life relationships
     • It was found that in successful marriages, the profits to losses relationship was 5:1, whereas this was 1:1 in unsuccessful marriages
     • This shows how the idea of profits and losses are important in relationship satisfaction and maintenance
   • AO1
     • Another explanation for the maintenance of relationship maintenance is the Equity Theory
     • This approach suggests people want fairness in a relationship and inequity leads to distress and dissatisfaction in the relationship
     • Equity is subjective to the individual, as a person may contribute and receive different amounts and still feel it is equitable
   • AO2
     • There is research to dispute Equity Theory, as it doesn't distinguish between different types of relationships
     • Clark and Mills distinguished between exchange relationships (colleagues/ business associates) and communal relationships (friends/ lovers)
     • Exchange relationships focus more on rewards, whereas communal relationships focus more on meeting each other's moods
     • Shows Equity Theory is better at explaining non-romantic relationships than romantic relationships
   • AO2
     • However, other research supports equity theory, as it has shown to be prevalent in marriage
     • DeMaris investigated whether marital inequities is associated with later marital disruption
     • Used 1500 pps as part of a US National Survey of Families and Households and found the only subject of inequity associated with disruption is the woman's sense of under-benefit
   • IDA
     • One issue associated with the economic theory of maintenance relationships is cultural bias
     • The SET states relationships are based on rewards outweighing the costs, but this may only be relevant in western cultures
     • In eastern cultures, where there is a collectivist culture, traditional values and focusing on the needs of others. Therefore western research is not universally generalisable

3. Breakdown

   • AO1
     • Lack of skills is often suggested as a reason for breakdown of relationships
     • Poor social skills, unrewarding behaviour and lack of interpersonal skills make a person seem uninterested
     • Maintenance issues such as distance may cause breakdown too
   • AO2
     • There is research evidence to support roles of stimulation
     • Boekhaut interviewed undergraduates and found men are more likely to cheat because of sexual boredom, and women are more likely to cheat because of lack of emotional satisfaction
     • This shows that lack of skills cause breakdown, but this is different for different genders
   • AO2
     • However, there is research to dispute this theory
     • Rohlfing found long distance relationships and friendships are becoming more and more common due to the development of social media such as video calling
     • This shows how maintenance issues do not always cause breakdown of relationships as there are adaptive strategies to cope with things like distance
   • IDA
     • This information has shown to be applicable to real life, in Couples Coping Enhancement Training
     • Cina compared 50 couples who received either CCET or were a control group and found higher satisfaction and higher equality in the marriages of the CCET group
     • CCET sensitises partners to issues of equity, respect and improves communication and problem solving
     • Shows how communication and other skills are important in maintenance of relationships
   • AO1
     • The 6 stage model of breakdown can be used to explain breakdown of relationships
     • Grave dressing includes tidying up memories, and finding stories to tell others to save face. Resurrection is the last stage which recreates the person's sense of own social value and prepares for a new relational future
     • This theory suggests people need to pass the threshold of each stage to get to the end of the breakdown
   • AO2
     • There is research to support the resurrection stage of the model
     • Tashiro and Frazer surveyed undergrads who had recently had a break up and found most had experienced distress but also personal growth
     • Shows how breaking up had given them better insight into themselves and gave them a better idea for future relations, as suggested by the resurrection stage
   • AO2
     • However this theory has been criticised for not differentiating between genders
     • Brehm and Kassin have found gender differences in the way men and women deal with break ups, e.g. women are more emotional but men are not
   • IDA
     • However, there are ethical issues of researching into relationship breakdown
     • Asking pps about break ups can be distressing for them if they were previously in an abusive relationship or had a bad break up
     • Therefore, considerations need to be made to ensure pps are not psychologically harmed at all

4. Sexual Selection

   • AO1
     • There are gender differences in sexual selection for a short term mate
     • Men have evolved a desire for casual sex, so they can spread their genes as much as possible, while women are more choosy and have higher standards to ensure they have a baby with good genes that will require minimum care
   • AO2
     • This can be supported by research into uni undergrads
     • Clarke and Hatfield asked males and females on campus 3 questions, 1) for a date, 2) to go back to their apartment, and 3) for sex
     • 50% of females said yes to 1), 6% said yes to 2) and 0 said yes to 3). Whereas 50% of males said yes to 1), 69% said yes to 2) and 75% said yes to 3)
     • This shows how men are less picky about their women, and mainly seek casual sex, while women have higher standards
   • AO2
     • This can also be supported by research into menstrual cycles
     • Penton Voak found women found a feminised version of a male's face more attractive normally, for a long term relationship, but while ovulation, most chose the more masculine looking fave as more attractive
     • This shows how women are more choosy when at the highest risk of conception
   • IDA
     • However, an issue into this theory is gender bias
     • This theory does not explain why women are also open to having casual sex when there is no evolutionary benefit for them. Greiling and Buss suggested this can beneficial to them as they can produce more genetically diverse offspring
   • AO1
     • There are also gender differences in sexual selection for a long term mate
     • Males are suggested to not give away their resources indiscriminantly, but to women who display signs of fertility. Women have to be choosey about their mate, and will chose someone who can invest resources, can physically protect the child, show promise as a parent and be compatible
   • AO2
     • There is cultural research to support this theory
     • Buss studied long term preferences from 37 different cultures and found women want men with good financial prospects, while men want younger mates
     • This means that women look for long term benefits while men mainly want to spread their genes
   • AO2
     • However, there is research into teenage males which disputes this theory
     • Buss found that teenage males are more attracted to older women (5+ years) despite these women showing less interest in them
     • This means that males do not necessarily look for more fertile women (younger), disputing the theory
   • IDA
     • One debate into this ares is free will vs determinism
     • If sexual selection is driven by evolutionary considerations, it would be more predictable. However, there has been an increase in homosexual relationships, contraception use, couples choosing not to have children, etc
     • This implies we have more control over our behaviour than suggested by the evolutionary theory

5. Parental Investment

   • AO1
     • It has been suggested that mothers invest more in their children than fathers
     • This is because the mother invests more resources during pregnancy and in post-natal care. Also, human infants require a lot of care, which is mainly provided by the mother
   • AO2
     • Research into extra marital affairs supports this theory
     • Baker and Bellis conducter a survey and estimated 14% were the product of extra marital affairs
     • This supports the suggestion that women get married to men with beneficial resources, but then have affairs with men with good genes to secure a healthy child and good resources
   • AO2
     • However, this can be disputed by the risks there are of cheating
     • Daly and Wilson claimed there are risks of abandonment and use of mate retention strategies if their husband finds out about the affair
     • This means that women can risk being abused or left if they are caught cheating
   • IDA
     • This theory can be supported by looking at non-human species which are evolutionarily similar
     • Chimps and bonobos have been compared and it was found that males show little or no parental investment
     • This shows how there has been an evolutionary change in male parenting
   • AO1
     • Males are claimed to invest less than females in their children
     • This is due to the risk of cuckholdry, as males don't want to waste their resources on a child which is not theirs
   • AO2
     • However, this can be contradicted by research into step parents
     • Anderson found fathers do not discriminate in distribution of resources between biological and step-children
     • This means that men will invest resources into children not theirs, disputing the theory
   • AO2
     • The theory can be supported by research into infidelity
     • Buss found that males are more concerned about sexual infidelity, whereas females are more concerned with emotional infidelity
     • This shows how males have a fear of cuckholdry and are therefore likely to invest less in a child
   • IDA
     • However, an issue with this theory is that it is reductionist
     • Rowe suggested male's paternal behaviour depends on personal and social conditions, such as relationship with mother, characteristics of the child and the personality of the father
     • Therefore this theory oversimplifies complex relationships and environmental factors need to be taken into consideration

6. Childhood Relationships

   • AO1
     • It can be assumed that parent-child relationships have an effect on future relationships
     • Attachment, caregiving and sexuality systems are said to affect relationships. Bowlby's theory suggests there is a continuation due to the internal working model. Children learn caregiving from their primary attachment figure. Also, those with avoidant attachments are most likely to perceive sex without love as a good thing
   • AO2
     • This can be supported by research into attachment types
     • Fraley conducted a meta analysis and found correlations from 0.1 to 0.5 between attachment and later relationships, showing a positive correlation between them
     • This shows support for the suggestion that childhood and later relationships are linked
   • AO2
     • Research into how stable attachment types are supports this theory
     • Kirkpatrick and Hazen found attachment style is stable while the person is in a stable relationship, so a break up causes their attachment to become unstable
     • This supports the suggestion that attachments and relationships are linked
   • IDA
     • Insights from non-human animals have offered more support for the theory
     • Harlow found that monkeys without adequate parental interaction later displayed inappropriate social and sexual behaviour in adulthood
     • This shows further support for the suggestion childhood and relationships are linked
   • AO1
     • Childhood friendships are also said to have an effect on relationships
     • Childrens' friendships are said to teach children traits which cannot be learnt from parents such as affection, alliance, intimacy and trust
   • AO2
     • This can be supported by a longitudinal study into friendships
     • Simpson conducted a study over 25 years, at 4 points; 1 year, 6-8 years, 16 years and 18-19 years old. It was found those more socially competent from 6-8 were closer to their friends at 16 and were more secure in relationships later on. Also, those securely attached to their parents were more socially competent
     • This shows how childhood friendships can affect later relationships
   • AO2
     • However, this theory does not differentiate between genders
     • Richard and Sneider found girls have more intimate relationships than boys and are more likely to report care and security in relationships
     • This suggests the theory cannot be applied to both genders as they act differently
   • IDA
     • One issue into this theory is determinism
     • This is because children who are insecurely attached from childhood are assumed to be doomed to experience emotionally unsatisfying relationships, but this isn't the case as researchers have found cases of people being in happy relationships despite having an insecure attachment

7. Cultural Influence

   • AO1
     • Culture has an effect on types of relationships
     • This is because in western cultures, there are more voluntary relationships, based on love. However, in eastern cultures, involuntary relationships are more popular, where people have arranged marriages to people with a similar status, usually decided by that person's family
   • AO2
     • Research has investigated which type of relationship is better
     • Epstein found divorce rates are low in easter cultures and half the spouses reported falling in love with each other
   • AO2
     • However, research into marital satisfaction disputes Epstein
     • Xiaohe and Whyte found instances in China where the parent chooses the partner for the child decreased from 70% to 10%. Women who married for love were reported to be happier than those who had arranged marriages
     • This shows how those in voluntary relationships have higher marriage satisfaction
   • IDA
     • However, there are methodological issues due to cultural bias
     • Measures of love can be affected by cultural bias and this can invalidate some conclusions drawn
     • This has led psychologists to suggest we need to develop research into other cultures and their view on love
   • AO1
     • Culture also affects the importance people place on love
     • Research suggested people in eastern countries were more likely to agree to marrying someone they didn't love compared to people in the US
     • This shows how western cultures place more importance on love than eastern cultures
   • AO2
     • Research has questioned the level of romance in cultures
     • Moore and Leung compared Anglo-Australian relationships with Chinese relationships and it was found 61% of AA students were in a relationship, whereas only 38% of Chinese students were. Also, AA females were found to be more romantic than males, but males and females were equal in Chinese relationships
     • This shows how both cultures have positive attitudes to love but have different levels of romance
   • AO2
     • There is support for the fact romance is important for eastern cultures
     • Xiaohe and Whyte found Chinese women who chose their partner were happier than those who didn't know their partner
     • This shows how those in eastern cultures do place some importance on love and romance
   • IDA
     • However, an issue into this is that assumptions made about eastern cultures may be warped by western media
     • Johnson and Homes investigated box office films between 1995 and 2005 and surveyed people. It was found the films' values reflected the beliefs and expectations of the people surveyed
     • This shows how people's view on relationships is affected by media so it is questionable how far culture is what has an effect on relationships