Learning

Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

   • Definition: A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus (Pavlovian Conditioning)
   • Terminology
     • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.
     • Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without the previous conditioning.
     • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
     • Conditioned Response (CR): A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.
     • Trial: Consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli
   • Evaluative Conditioning: Refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli
   • Acquisition: Refers to the initial stage of learning something
   • Extinction: The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency
   • Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus
   • Renewal Effect: If a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place
   • Stimulus Generalization: Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
   • Stimulus Discrimination: Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
   • Higher-Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus
   • Preparedness: Involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others

2. Definition: Is any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience

3. Operant Conditioning

   • Definition: is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences (Instrumental Learning)
   • Law Of Effect: If a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened
   • Reinforcement: Occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response
   • Terminology
     • Operant Chamber (Skinner Box): A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled.
     • Reinforcement Contingencies: The circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers
     • Cumulative Recorder: Creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time
     • Primary Reinforcers: Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
     • Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers: Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.
   • Shaping: Consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response
   • Resistance to Extinction: Occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated
   • Discriminative Stimuli: Cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcment) of a response
   • Schedules of Reinforcement
     • Determines which occurrences of a specific response results in the presentation of a reinforcer
     • Continuous Reinforcement: Occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.
     • Intermitted (Partial) Reinforcement: Occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time
     • Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule: The reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses
     • Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule: The reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses
     • Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule: The reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
     • Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule: The reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed
   • Positive Reinforcement: Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus
   • Negative Reinforcement: Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
   • Escape Learning: An organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation
   • Avoidance Learning: An organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring
   • Punishment: Occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response
   • Instinctive Drift: Occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes

4. Observational Learning

   • Definition: Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.
   • Basic Processes:
     • Attention
     • Retention
     • Reproduction
     • Motivation
   • Mirror neurons: Neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person perform the same action
   • Behaviour Modification: A systematic approach to changing behaviour through the supplication of the principles of conditioning
   • Antecedents: Events that typically precede the target response