HENRY VIII

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HENRY VIII: A NEW ERA

The Early Years:

Early Life:

Only became heir in 1502, at age of 11

Well-educated = languages, astronomy, history, arithmetic, musical instruments and singing

Athletic = horse-riding, archery, tennis, jousting

Well prepared for ole of Renaissance Prince

Code of chivalry = glory through jousting or warfare = influenced future foreign policy

First Decisions:

Inherited trusted and experienced councillors

Sir Thomas Lovell = Chancellor of Exchequer

Bishop Fox = Lord Privy Seal

Archbishop Warham = Lord Chancellor

Thomas Howard = Earl Marshall

Within days of accession, he arrests HVII's financial enforcers, Epsom and Dudley, and abolishes the Council Learned in Law

Promised to honour marriage to Catherine of Aragon

Character and Skill:

Contemporary propaganda = glowing, but misleading

Agreement on his attractive appearance, flamboyant manner, his earning and his skills

Chivalrous and a warrior-king

Wanted to recreate glory of HV through imperial kingship

Fundamentally a strong king, but had periods of uncertainty and indecision

Court:

Centre of politics, government, and the King's majesty/power

Lavish court = generous hospitality and patronage

Dedicated to pleasure and refinement

Improved number and quality of royal residences

Treatment of Nobility:

Early gestures of goodwill = disbanding the CLL and cancelling 175 B&R

Regarded as friends and associates

Used to increase prestige of court

Suspicious of courtiers who claimed royal blood

Edmund de la Pole = Yorkist 'White Rose' = executed in 1513 for treason

Richard de la Pole = Recognised as 'King Richard IV' by France, but no series attempts = died during service to French army in 1525

Style of Government:

Used JPs to control local government

Encouraged advisers and administration from outside of nobility

Increased importance of Privy Chamber

Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber = members who had access to king

Privy Council grew to 20 advisors = advised on matters of state

Begining = Wolsey and More in charge

Middle years = Cromwell in control

Later years = Paget took control

Never paid personal attention to the extent of his father

Willing to delegate power = Crucial years dictated by Wolsey and Cromwell

Combination of medieval 'good lord' and the Renaissance 'universal man'

Left much of administration to chief ministers

Encouraged factionalism

Foreign Policy at Beginning

Came to throne with peace and money = keen to establish mark on international affairs and demonstrate strengths

Relations with France:

Revive hostilities

1512: led an army against Fr as part of an international alliance = achieved little and was an embarrassment

1513: Wolsey organised the second expedition = huge success, captured Tournai and Therouanne

1514: victory labelled Treaty of Germaine-en-Laye = possession of two towns and payments from Fr

Relations with Sc:

1512: Sc allied with Fr and attacked the Northern border

Catherine acted as regent while Henry was in Fr

1513: Battle of Flodden = last large-scale medieval battle in England = resulted in the death of King James IV

Scotland now inactive, with focus on the regency of Margaret Tudor and the toddler James V

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WOLSEY AS CHIEF MINISTER - CHURCH AND STATE

The Rise of Wolsey:

Patronage under Bishop Fox in HVII's court

Used Fox's support to gain position of Royal Almoner

1512: entrusted to organise French expedition = successful

By 1514: all major business through Wolsey

Rise to High Office:

1513: Dean of York, Bishop or Tournai

1514: Bishop of Lincoln, Archbishop of York

1515: Made Cardinal by Pope Leo X, Lord Chancellor

1518: Appointed Papal Legate by Leo X

Personality:

Wealthy, worldly, unusually proud and ostentatious

Impressive array of titles and positions

Alter Rex = the 'other king'

Enemies saw him as arrogant and vindictive

Flattered and manipulated Henry

Used positions to intimidate rivals

Duke of Buckingham = 1520 investigated by Wolsey for rumours of treason talk, arrested and imprisoned in 1521 = used Buckingham as an example to others

Capable of revenge = humiliated and financially ruined lord who embarrassed him in his youth

Wolsey and the Church:

Pope's representative in England = made a Cardinal

Supported by Henry = pressured Leo X to make Wolsey Papal Legate

Legatus a latere = Papal Legate with added powers = able to give leadership and reject Church Reform

Church in 1520s:

Majority accepted Christian beliefs

Enthusiasm for religious devotion

Instinctively loyal to the Catholic Church

Strand of anti-clericalism = not helped by Wolsey

Printing increased awareness of taxes for Rome

Aware of shortcomings = personified by Wolsey, extravagance, 2 illegitimate children and open relationship with mistress

Lollards = supporters of John Wycliffe and his view on scripture

Lutheranism = supporters of Martin Luther, views spread from Germany

Published beliefs that contradicted some Catholic doctrines

Gaine support against the Catholic Emperor, Charles V

1520: Ideas reached England = South-East exposed to Protestant literature through trade

Tyndale started to publish the Bible in English

Protestantism became a forum for any criticism against Catholic Church and the Pope

Wolsey and Church Reform:

As Papal Legate = ordered inspections of monasteries, resulting in dozens being dissolved

Wanted to promote religious learning to improved quality of clergy

Monastery dissolution approved on condition that money received be used on education

1528: plans to amalgamate a lot of monasteries, creating a starting point for Cromwell

Wanted to streamline monasticism = increase efficiency and improve learning

Responsible for removing 8 unsuitable monastery heads

Strongly opposed the spread of Protestantism

Encouraged Henry to stand against Luther = led to public burnings of Lutheran texts (1921)

Henry appointed 'Defender of the Faith' by Pope

Groups of sympathisers arrested

Majority content with Catholicism and Lutherans were seen as people who were wrongly influenced and needed to reform

Wolsey viewed as everything wrong that needed to change

Guilty of absenteeism and plurality

Government under Wolsey:

Left to the day-to-day management of government

Biggest rivals were Henry's 'minions'

Some reforms aimed more at undermining rivals than improving government

Made few actual changes to structure

Stopped reforming after achieving his aims

Legal Reforms:

Wanted to reform the slow and unfair justice system

Wanted to promote civil law, the use of natural justice and evidence

Demote common law, which was the use of precedence

Strengthen the Star Chamber = used more frequently, attacking nobles and officials who abused power

Encouraged commoners to bring issues to the court = known as 'friend to the poor'

Used the Court of Request to hear common cases = popular due to low cost and speed of deliverance

Put his interests above the good of all = angered those who were actual trained lawyers

Financial Reforms:

Could not exploit existing methods of finance anymore

Growing inflation made sums raised less and less significant

1522: organised a national survey of taxes

Used to gain £200,00 in forced loans (1922-3)

Proposed a flexible tax = based on income rather than property = didn't raise as much as expected

Levied a tax on the church

1525: proposed an 'Amicable Grant' from the Church and taxpayers based on property valuations = provoked a significant rebellion across the country

Economic Policies:

Became in growing problems with enclosures = viewed the move from arable land to sheep farming as the destruction of village life and jobs

1517: national enquiry of the extent of enclosure and its effect

Resulted in several legal cases against landowners

Met opposition at 1523 Parliament, forcing him to halt until 1526

HVIII's foreign policy disrupted trade

Wolsey's alliance with Fr against Sp was problematic = trade embargo affected the cloth trade

Widespread unemployment = mixture of loss of trade, poor harvests and price rises

1526: debasement of the coinage = stimulated exports but increased prices

Economic depression and inflation caused significant suffering among poor, leading to many small-scale riots

Wolsey and Parliament:

Only two Parliaments during his time, therefore couldn't be accused of bypassing them

Not called again until Henry needed them for the divorce

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ENGLAND'S RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN POWERS, 1509-29

Challenge of Foreign Policy:

Issues in Europe:

Effect o Reformation from 1517 onwards

Fear of Ottoman Turks and the spread of Islam = attacks in the Balkans and Vienna

Campaigns with Fr and Sc:

Quick military victories

Expensive and had wiped out Royal finances

Little real achievements = Tournai and Therouanne were not impressive wins

Wolsey's Struggle:

Needed to establish England in European affairs

Limited resources at his disposal

Could not compete with the size of the French of Habsburg empires

Also neglected when focus shifted to Italy

Sudden deaths changed the power balance = all new young males who could personally compete with Henry

Louis XII 1515, Ferdinand 1516, Maximilian 1519

Francis I of Fr showed power by surpassing Herny's reputation with victories in Italy

Death of Ferdinand and Maximilian allowed their shared grandson to inherit their empires, giving him huge expanse to control = no chance of competition there

Wolsey created a new role for Henry = established England as the peacemaker

Treaty of London, 1518:

Called on all major European powers to agree to 'universal peace' in the face of the Ottomans

Signed by over dozen countries

Agreed to avoid war or risk being attacked by all other signatories

Created a crude power balance

England in pivotal point of power = all countries had signed separately with England

Glittering success = brought immediate fame to Henry, upstaged the Pope, dispelled England's isolation

Downfall came in 1519 when Charles V became the next HRE

Completed his dominance over Europe

Caused issues with Fr = V's lands surrounded Fr on all sides and threatened Franci's control in Italy

FI and CV now in direct opposition and war was inevitable

Support for Habsburgs, 1520-25:

1520: Henry met with FI at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and with CV twice = trying to remain neutral while choosing a side to be on

Spain was the more attractive ally = Henry was married to Catherine (CV's aunt) and still wanted glory in Fr

1522: Henry declares war on Fr = achieved little but cost a lot

1525: Imperial forces captured FI = Henry wanted to split Fr between England and Sp, but CV was reluctant and rejected him

Support for France, 1525-29:

Support for Charles had been disappointing

England had been used to distract Fr but gave nothing in return

1526: League of Cognac set up as anti-Habsburg = France, England, the Pope, Venice and Florence = England hoped to remain as peacemaker

England dragged into war against Charles

Wolsey was trying to split Fr and Sp, while Henry's demands for divorce made neutrality impossible = it was seen as an attack on CV

Henry required Pope's permission for divorce, but Pope was being controlled by CV, who was Catherine's nephew and wouldn't be accepting

1527: England and Fr sign treaty and fight together against Habsburgs

1529: CV defeats FI, leading to the Treaty of Cambrai = England only just involved in the peace treaty

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HENRY'S QUEST FOR DIVORCE

Wolsey and the King's Divorce:

Reasons for Divorce:

Catherine had been unable to produce male heir

Illegitimate son may not be accepted as heir

Infatuated with Anne Boleyn, who refused to be mistress

Issues with Divorce:

Needed Pope's approval, but Pope was being controlled by CV

CV was Catherine's nephew, making him (and consequently the Pope) unlikely to support Henry

1 - Scriptural Arguments:

Marriage depended on Catherine's word that her marriage to Arthur was not consummated

If the marriage was consummated, her marriage to Henry would be invalid

This argument convinced Henry that his lack of a son was God's punishment for marrying his brother's wife

2- Diplomatic Manoeuvres:

Wolsey tried to free the Pope of CV's control by using the Fr alliance

Fr restarted war with Italy to distract CV, but policy failed as Charles was in too deep to be removed

3 - Legel Efforts:

Planned to hold the hearing in England where he, as Papal Legate, would pass judgment

Pope was keen not to offend Charles = sent Cardinal Campeggio to delay hearings and ensure a decision was never reached

When the case was eventually heard, Catherine refused to acknowledge it, appealing to the Pope to move the hearing to Rome

The Pope agreed, angering the Englis court and making it clear to Henry that Wolsey was no longer useful

The Fall of Wolsey:

Two Great Failures:

The collapse of the anti-Habsburg strategy in Europe

Inability to obtain the divorce

Henry's Attack on Wolsey:

1529: Henry's uses Wolsey's position of Pala Legate to accuse him of Praemunire = working for the Pope rather than the King

Stripped of powers and possessions and exiled to York

Wolsey blames attacks on AB poisoning Henry's mind

Boleyn faction blamed him for the divorce failure

1530: called to London to face further charges, but he died on the journey due to ill-health = saved him from being tried for treason

Why did Wolsey lose Henry's Confidence?

Failure to secure divorce

Failure to achieve foreign policy aims

Influence of the Boleyn faction

Personal reputation and ambition

Interpretations of Relationship:

General agreement that Henry was in charge, but recognised Wolsey's abilities

Master and servant relationship

Wolsey aware that power depended on Henry's grace

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SUMMARY

HVIII very different from his father, HVII

Implemented a very active foreign policy against France and Scotland

Wolsey was dominant in Church and State from 1514 to 1529

Wolsey carried out law reforms and attempted financial reforms

Anti-clericalism in the Catholic Church

Reformation of Europe started under Martin Luther in 1517

Wolsey attempted improvement to education and acted against Lutheranism

Foreign policy oscillated from supporting France and Spain

HVIII wished for divorce but encountered difficulties

Wolsey filed to achieve divorce and fell from power in 1529/30

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REFORMATION PARLIAMENT AND ROYAL SUPREMACY

Slow Progress of Divorce:

Wolsey had tried and failed

Situation was seen as urgent by Henry

Wolsey replaced by More, who eventually reached Henry's goal

Sir Thomas More as Chancellor:

Poor replacement for Wolsey

Reputation for being a man who placed principles above all else

Strong humanist beliefs

Used his books to criticise the elite of society

Was sympathetic to the plight of CoA

Was critical of the Church, but was concerned over Henry support for reformists

1528 and 1530-31: Instrumental in harsh attacks on reformists

Very rigid with religious principles = caused difficulties in relationship with Henry

As Chancellor = attacked Lutheran influences within Church, became increasingly frustrated with AB presence at court and the divorce question

Attempts to Progress Divorce:

Between 1529 and 1532 = introduced measures to pressure clergy to support him

Supported by reformists who wanted radical changes = in turn, supported by Lollards and some humanists

Ideas of reformers became more attractive as dispute with Pope worsened

REformist demands included improving religious leadership = strengthen royal power to protect and develop CoE

Henry had to pressure on clergy not to oppose him, as well as putting pressure on the Pope in challenge over who should control the CoE

Henry had to be careful not to be excommunicated = would lose him to loyalty of subjects and result in rebellions

Henry Becomes Head of Church of England:

Parliament was key tool in putting pressure on the clergy and Pope

Simultaneous attacks n the clergy and Pope through acts of Parliament

Establishment of Royal Supremacy:

Parliament ran from 1529 to 1536, passing several acts on Church Reform

Acts systematically stripped the Pope of his powers/control, transferring them to the King

Henrician Reformation = political reformation for who controlled the Church

Act in Restraint of Appeals:

Passed Feb 1533, month after Henry and AB secret marriage

Made clear that the hearing was to be in England, preventing Catherine from appealing further to the Pope

Quick progress followed the Act

May 1533: Court assembled under Archbishop Cranmer

Argued that marriage to Arthur had been consummated

Marriage was therefore invalid, justifying marriage to AB earlier

June 1533: AB crowned Queen and EI was born in September

Royal Supremacy by AOP, 1534:

Reinforced the new changes

Acknowledged King as head of the Church

'Acknowledged' = always had the right, but was now claiming it = it was not Parliament giving him the right

Followed by Treason Act = made a denial of royal supremacy punishable by death

1535: Cromwell appointed Vicar General = HEnry's deputy over the Church's organisation

Implications of Supremacy Act:

Medieval Popes had seldom had direct involvement in day-to-day decision making and control in England

Popes usually just confirmed King's choices for appointments

Rome was rarely appealed to

No doctrinal changes

Importance in what came next = dissolution of the monasteries, doctrinal changes

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EXTENT OF RELIGIOUS CHANGE IN 1530S

The Spread of Protestant Ideas:

Criticism and Development:

1529 onwards Henry encouraged criticism of the Pope and the Clergy

Allowed reformists to speak openly

Offered relief from persecution and opportunity to influence

Reformers able to develop ideas, especially with sympathisers like AB and Cromwell

Cromwell managed Parliament while AB turned Henry towards Tyndale, protected heretics and encouraged the appointment of formers

By 1536 = Lutheran individuals in key positions of government = began influencing religious debate at court

Protestant teachings spread in London and the South

Encouraged by reforms of the late 1530s

Protestantism not affected by the issues of AB and her failure to produce a male heir

1536: AB executed and Henry marries Jane Seymour, a Protestant

1537: Jane dies after giving birth but did leave behind a male heir

Government Propaganda Supporting Reformation:

Phrasing of the Preambles to Acts = appealing to Bible and early history of Church

Encouraged obedience to the King

Used Bible to highlight necessity of obeying the temporal ruler

Doctrinal Reform:

1530s: Cromwell wanted to reform Church teachings

1536: Worked with Cranmer to introduce some Protestant ideas

Issued the Ten Articles of Faith

Some Lutheran ideas, but largely Catholic

Some vague wording to prevent offending either side

1536 and 1538: Injunctions that enforced the articles

Encouraged reformers

Attacked the abuses and superstitions of the Church

1537: First official English translation of the Bible

1538: Royal proclamation ordering a copy in every parish church

Swift and significant changes = climate for change that could not easily be reversed

A Swing Back to Catholicism:

Swift changes had been too much for Henry

Required Catholic allies in Europe = had to stress that changes were moderate

Catholic doctrines returned between 1538-40 also reflected Cromwell's declining influence

1539: Passing of the Six Articles Act, encouraged by Duke or Norfolk (Howard)

Led to Henry's marriage to the Catholic Catherine Howard in 1540

1541: Protestants back in favour after Catherine's was discredited and executed

Political, Social and Economic Significance of Dissolution:

The early 1500s = 25 religious houses, 500 of which were monasteries

Owed a lot of lands and employed many people

By 1540 = all closed down = implications for society and economy

Demonstrated the new powers of monarch and Parliament

Causes of Dissolution:

Monasteries enjoyed a powerful reputation within the Church = played important roles in local life

By 1500s = high regard had declined

Abuses of power = now had servants and luxuries, instead of simple lives

1st reason for closure = decline in members and qualilty

1533 survey = investigated monasteries and uncovered abuses and corruption to be common

Other reasons:

Wealthy = seizing assets would double the Crown's income

Lands = seizure of land would lead to more income and a way to buy loyalty

Permanent reminders of Catholic Church = potential centres of resistance

Purpose of monasteries not aligned with Protestant ideas = Protestants did not pray for the soul

The process of Dissolution:

Three-part approach

1st - gathered evidence to prove inability

2nd - dissolved smaller monasteries

3rd - removed all the rest

1534: Act of First Fruits and Tenths = taxation of the Church, Act of Supremacy = Henry as head of Church

1535: Survey to value monastic lands and properties, an investigation into moral and spiritual standards of monasteries

1536: All smaller residences closed

1537-8: Continued closures, execution of Carthusian monks

1539: Closure of larger monasteries and all religious houses except chantries

1540: Court of Augmentations established = handle dissolved property and income

Effects of Dissolution:

King and nobility the main beneficiaries = increased wealth

Most of land sold to raise funds for foreign policy

Increased visibility of the gentry class

Protestants benefited = great blow to the possibility of the return of Catholicism

Main losers were inhabitants and the local communities

Loss of service to locals = shelter, food, education

Monks and nuns lost accommodation and jobs

Refusal of a link between dissolution and increased poverty

Loss of learning = breaking up of great libraries, loss of education for noble children

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OPPOSITION TO RELIGIOUS CHANGE

Opposition to Change:

Resistance at Court:

Individuals and old-established families were very traditional

Important people who tried to use their influence against Protestantism

Sir Thomas More:

Opponent of divorce and changes of 1534

Fell from royal favour over reluctance to support Henry and AB

More refused Succession Act and the delegitimising of Mary = sent to Tower

Tried for treason after 'proof' of him slandering Herny in prison came forth = execution ordered

Aragonese faction:

Before 1534: opposition to Church attacks shown through sympathising with Catherine

Small group of nobles and courtiers

From 1532: faction silenced by AB and Cromwell

Mary exclusion from succession after divorce pushed Aragonese supporters into the Pilgrimage of Grace = resulted in executions

Resistance within Clergy:

John Fisher:

Bishop of Rochester since 1504

Told Herny directly that his actions were wrong

Refused to swear oath accepting the divorce, resulting in imprisonment

Pope declared Fisher was to become a Cardinal = Henry reacted by executing him for treason

While legal, Henry actions were harsh and brash = gained support for Fisher's cause

Elizabeth Barton, Nun of Kent:

Gifted with 'visions' = repeatedly warned Henry that divorce would lead to his death and other severe consequences

1530: Used to orchestrate a wider campaign among any opposers to reforms, the Boleyn faction, and the divorce

1533: Nuns and mentors arrested

1534: executed after admitting visions were fake

Monastic Resistance:

Many individual monks who preached against the divorce, the supremacy and the heresy

Carthusian Order = London based monks

1532-33: refused to accept divorce

1534: resisted government pressure to denounce Pope

Majority arrested and 18 executed

Resistance within the Country:

1536: riots in Lincolnshire = closure of monastery and rumours of church closure

Riots spread across whole of North

Became apart of the Pilgrimage of Grace

Peak of 40,000 pilgrims

The Scale of Resistance:

Little revolt caused by political, social and economic consequences of the dissolutions

Most ordinary people were not concerned with the doctrine

All changes were made legal, and any opposition was dealt with using the Treason Act

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ROYAL AUTHORITY AND GOVERNMENT IN 1530S

Reform of Government:

Royal Council:

Emergence of the Privy Council = more professional

Contained fewer people and was composed of trained lawyers and bureaucrats

Financial Management:

Through the Privy Chamber

Gave monarchs control over day-to-day decisions

Cromwell created new institutions to work with the PCh

Court of Augmentations = deal with assets from dissolutions

Court of General Surveyors = handled monastic lands, later amalgamated with CoA

Court of First Fruits and Tenths = collected taxes originally sent to Rome

Court of Wards = Collect money from minors who had inherited

King's Advisers:

Professional administrators placed untrained nobility and clergy

Formed an utterly loyal band of servants = depended on King for positions

Power of the Crown:

Effect on the Power and Authority of the Monarch:

Act of Restraint of Appeals = claimed that King was divine in his own land, and didn't have to appeal to Rome for any judgment

In reality = England supposed to ask Pope's permission for any change or administration the church, and King was not singular ruler, as several places had semi-independence

Authority spread unevenly across country

1536: Act of Union with Wales = reorganised government there and along the marches

Act against Liberties and Franchises = removed and restricted powers exercised by regional nobles

Role and Importance of Parliament:

1530s: Used extensively by Cromwell to enact legislation for the break with Rome and strengthen royal authority

Not a regular form of government = King ruled mostly through proclamations

Rule and power depended on status of royal finances

Operated in partnership with the Crown

Parliament of the 1530s:

Lasted for 7 years

Passed a range of new laws and acts, never seen before in the government

Created stability and a workload that improved Parliamentary methods and structure

Became involved in areas of government and church never been before

New highest order of law established as the Statue Law made by the King-in-Parliament

Applied in any aspect of life and society

Created a co-operation with Parliament

Incorporated members from the complete political nation

The Composition of Parliament:

1530s: developments changed composition greatly

Dissolution of the Monasteries led to the loss of abbots, while bishops increased with 4 new cathedrals built

In the Commons, 14 new boroughs given the right to elect MPs

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SUMMARY

HVIII's divorce achieved through Parliament, not Pope

Parliament used to declare HVIII as Supreme Head of the Church

Propaganda used to justify Henry's position

Religious change began to influence England

Archbishop Cranmer defined the beliefs of the Church of England

dissolution of the monasteries was successful

Mor consequences of dissolution

Opposition to the Reformation

Pilgrimage of Grace was potentially major rebellion

Cromwell was important to the smooth running of government in the 1530s

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ENGLAND'S RELATIONS ABROAD IN LAST YEARS

English Foreign Policy in 1530s:

Protestant Allies:

European focus on the South and the Ottoman Turks

Only attention paid to the Pope for the divorce and church reform

1538: Henry excommunicated from Catholic Church and Pope

Needed allies against Catholic Sp and Fr

Schmalkaldic League = Northern German states who wanted semi-independence from CV = Prices converted to Protestantism

No official alliance against Habsburgs and Fr

Europe very fluid = didn't help situation

Natural ally was France = angered CV through Catherine divorce

No official alliance = too focused on English Reformation

1538: Truce of Nice = CV and FI

Fear of invasion by Catholic alliance and the Pope

May have influenced Henry's decision to publish the Six Articles in 1539

Marriage arrangement between Henry and Anne of Cleves (German Protestant)

Henry severely disliked her, resulting in divorce a few months after marriage

War restarted between FI and CV = need for Protestant ally less needed, as threat of invasion receded

Events in Scotland, 1540-47:

1540s = JV intensified threat by allying with Fr

1938 = Married Mary of Guise, FI relative

Refused alliances proposed by Henry = humiliating

1542: Sent a campaign north = success, 1000+ prisoners captured

James died weeks after defeat = Crown left to Mary (Queen of Scots)

Proposed marriage of Edward and Mary = treaty collapsed when Scots backed out = restarting of war as Scots looks to Fr for assistance

1544-45: series of raids of border = 'rough wooing' of Scotland = alienated Scots further

By death = prevented full alliance between Sc and Fr, but at great financial cost

Foreign Policy in Europe, 1540-47:

By 1541: FI and CV at war

1542: FI allied with Ottoman Turks against CV, Henry allied with Habsburgs against FI

1544: Campaign sent to Calais

Unable to cooperate with CV = different priorities

Captured Boulogne

CV and FI signed peace treaty

Henry sails home and FI threatens to invade = Southern border put on full defense

1545: Failed French invasion

Combination of Fr incompetence and lack of base

1546: Treaty of Ardres with Fr = kept Boulogne and renewal of pension money

War led to huge economic issues = resulted in severe debasement of the coinage

Involvement in Ireland:

1536: Fitzgerald led a rebellion against English Crown = supported Pope and CV

Rebellion brutally put down

Establishment of a solid government base

1540: Kingdom of Ireland created = all lands had to pledge to England

Promised to incorporate Ireland in Parliament and court

Extended English law cross Ireland = removal of feudal territories

Assessment of HVIII's Foreign Policy:

Henry well educated in foreign policy

Did achieve successes, but they were few

Dominated by 'quarrel' with Pope = divorce and Reformation

Not powerful in Europe = made worse by geographical position, as it isolated them from main European drama (Italy and Ottoman Turks)

Shortage of money to fight long, expensive wars

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FACTIONS AT COURT AND THE SUCCESSION

Growing Factionalism and the Fall of Cromwell:

Did Cromwell Deserve his Fate:

Death of Jane encouraged Cromwell to seek a Protestant marriage

Arranged marriage to Anne of Cleves

Cromwell misinformed about appearance = caused outrage when she arrived

Cromwell forced to arranged divorce

Weakened relationship when Henry was already concerned about the reforms

Enemies at Court:

Used the collapse of the Cleves marriage against Cromwell

Henry increasingly infatuated with Catherine Howard = niece of Norfolk, Cromwell's main rival

Norfolk used opportunity to poison Henry's relationship with Cromwell, but Henry intended to take no action yet = rewarded Cromwell instead

Cathrine instructed to spread rumours that Cromwell was neglecting duty to achieve divorce

Norfolk claimed that Cromwell was protecting Protestants in Calais = concerned Henry, who was concerned about doctrinal changes

Death of Cromwell:

Fall from power came suddenly

1539-40: political skill failed him = personal preference, the failure of the Cleves marriage and inability to establish a Protestant alliance concerned Henry = worried he was seeking his own aims

Enemies welcomed Henry's desire to punish Cromwell

Judgement clouded by anger and infatuation with Catherine

1450: Cromwell executed on false claims regarding Protestant reforms

Character of Cromwell:

Portrayed as cunning and scheming = 'the end justifies the means'

Elton = public servant, government reformer believed in the rule of law, Protestant supporter

Claimed to be a tyrant = secret informants and spy network

Protestant beliefs were true = pushed Henry into English Bible publication = seen as ally to reformers

Never enjoyed the same exclusive role as Wolsey = position relied on control of factions, not trust and loyalty of the king

Continuing Factions:

Last years dominated by intensified rivalry between reformers and conservatives

Encouraged by Henry's poor health and lack of Chief Minister

King fully aware of manoeuvres of his courtiers and encouraged them

Prevented the domination of one opinion and encouraged discussions

1540: conservatives on top = three major victories = Six Articles, fall of Crowell and marriage to Catholic Catherine

Short-lived success = loss of Catherine in 1542, fail to remove Cranmer from power, marriage to Protestant Catherine Parr, Protestant education of Edward and Elizabeth, fail to removed Catherine in 1546

Succession Act 1544:

Ensure Edward's safe succession

Removed rival claimants = Pole family and vanquishing of Surrey

Ensured succession was set in law

Act of succession = Edward, Mary, Elizabeth, Suffolk family = ruled out MQS

Factionalism and succession, 1546-7:

Reform act dominant

Parr had survived and Seymour was powerful in court, as Edward's uncle and as a military leader

William Paget well trusted by Henry

Career of traditional Gardiner was in decline = waned Pope back, involved in 1546 plot against Catherine

Reformers increasingly occupying positions of importance

1546: Anthony Denny (reformer) made Chief Gentleman = explicit access to the king and the Dry Stamp

Able to legalise any document the reformers wanted

Revised will = added provisions that strengthened powers of the Regency Council for Edward = published after HVIII's death

1546: Conservative faction finally broken apart = arrest of key leaders (Norfolk and Surrey) for treason = staking claim to the throne = Surrey executed, Norfolk escaped

Will declared that regency would be managed by 16 mean chosen by Henry = dominated by reform members

Seymour elected Lord Protector = uncle and key military leader among reformists

Reformers firmly in charge

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POSITION OF THE CHURCH BY 1547

Church of England by 1540:

1539: Six Articles Act = halted reforms, enforced strict Catholic interpretation and beliefs

Development in Last Years:

1540-47: Protestants and their ideas attacked, but not wiped out

Cranmer remained Archbishop despite conservative attack

Catherine maintained interest in reform and encouraged Protestant education of the children

By death: Reformation at a stalemate = Protestant preaching suppressed, but England still excommunicated

Bible still in England and some reforms remained

England in an uneasy state = Catholicism without the Pope = weak position

Doctrines of Church by HVIII's Death:

Main doctrines remained Catholic

Eucharist was Catholic

Only the clergy allowed both bread and wine

All seven Catholic sacraments remained

Confession seen as essential

Clergy could not marry = problem for those who married before 1540 reintroduction

Many Catholic processions and events remained

Introduction of some Protestant elements:

Some English services introduced

English Bible was the authorised official version

Less emphasis on saints and pilgrimages forbidden

Number of saint days reduced

Religious Beliefs in 1547:

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SUMMARY

Continuity and Change:

Changes:

Rise in population = increased inflation and social issues

Disruption of village life due to enclosure

Resentment at growth of government intervention into everyday life

Over-ambitious foreign policy resulted in debasement of the coinage and near economic ruin

Failure to expand exploration of the New World

Increased pace of religious debate

Flowering of humanism

Increased attendance at university

Assessment of HVIII's As King:

Succeeded in raising profile of monarchy

Addressed political and social issues

Control over nobles through jousts, tournaments, and festivals

Great ability to impress foreign visitors

Succeeded in getting nation to accept the benefits of the Tudor government

Firmly established the Tudor regime, like his father