Unit 2 Study Questions

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Briefly identify and describe the three goals of the scientific enterprise. (pp. 44-45) 1. Measurement and description - crafting a method to measure the phenomenon under study. 2. Understanding and prediction - creating and testing hypotheses in order to explain the reason for the occurrence of the events studied. 3. Application and control - taking the information gathered and applying to real world situations, usually applied through a theory.

What are the five steps in scientific investigations? (pp. 46, 48) 1. Formulate a testable hypothesis - translate a theory or an intuitive idea into a testable hypothesis (expressed as predictions). To be testable, they must be formulated precisely, and the variable studied must be clearly defined (done by providing operational definitions of the variables). 2. Select a research method and design the study - Figuring out how to convert the hypothesis to an empirical test, as well as including what kind of experiment to conduct, who the participants would be, how many participants needed, and where to get them. 3. Collecting the data - collecting data using a variety of data collection techniques. 4. Analyze the data and draw conclusions - observations are converted into numbers (the raw data of the study. Use statistics to analyze the data and to determine if the hypothesis has been supported. 5. Report findings - write a concise summary of the studies and findings and share them (publish in journals) to advance scientific progress.

Define an operational definition, participants (or subjects), and data collection techniques. (pp. 44-45) Operational definition - describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable. Participants (subjects) - persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study. Data collection techniques - procedures for making empirical observations and measurements.

Comment: In everyday life, we often use words

casually. For example, we might describe ourselves as “full of anxiety,”

and our listeners will usually get a general idea of what we are

talking about. This practice, however, is not precise enough for

psychological research. If we use a word like anxiety in

research, we have to define it operationally, in terms of the actions or

operations we use to measure anxiety. Anxiety, for example, might be

measured using physiological measures, such as heart rate and

perspiration, or it might be measured using a test in which people rate

the extent of their anxiety. The same generally goes for other variables

in a psychology experiment as well: they must be defined precisely

through the operations we use to measure them.

Describe two advantages of the scientific approach as it relates to the study of behaviour. (pp. 48-49) Two advantages of the scientific approach are as follows. Clarity and precision - commonsense notion about behaviour are often vague and ambiguous, where as the scientific method requires that people specify exactly what they are talking about when they form hypotheses. Intolerance or error - scientists are sceptical, subject ideas to empirical tests, critically evaluate findings and demand objective data and thorough documentation before accepting an idea. This yields more accurate and dependable information versus armchair speculation.

Comment: The two features of a scientific approach

with respect to behaviour are (a) an insistence on clarity and

precision, and (b) avoidance of errors. In pursuit of avoiding errors,

scientists take a skeptical attitude, which entails believing things

only after they have been proven through experiments or other means of

generating data. Scientific skepticism is a way of being on guard

against accepting false data, incorrect facts, and bogus causal

relationships. Once data, facts, and causal relationships have passed

the test of skepticism, however, scientists can then accept these

findings fully and passionately. As such, do not think of scientists as

skeptical about everything. Scientists restrict their skepticism to that

which has not been proven, and they accept what has been proven.

Through this kind of restrictive skepticism, scientists are able to

assemble proven facts in understanding our world.

Define an experiment. Define and give examples of the three types of variables (independent, dependent, and extraneous) that may be encountered in an experiment. (pp. 49, 51) An experiment is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result. An independent variable is a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see it's impact on another variable. The dependent variable is the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable. Extraneous variables are Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependant variable in a specific study. Lets say you wanted to do a study on the effects of chocolate on the ability to study. The independent variable is being given the chocolate, and the dependant variable is it's effects on study ability. Extraneous variables would be, for example, the age of the participants, their mental abilities, any preexisting conditions regarding the consumption of chocolate, because all of those variables may have an effect on how the chocolate can effect the participants, and to what degrees.

Distinguish between experimental and control groups, and explain their relationship in an experiment. (p. 50) (See also Unit 2 (Chapter 2) Conceptual Exercises: Variables and Designs.) The experimental group receives treatment regarding the independent variable, while other group, the control group does not. As long as the extraneous variables are accounted for, and as long as both groups are similar in all the ways pertaining to the experiment, when the experimental group receives treatment, any effects that treatment has can be compared to the control group to isolate the effects that changing the independent variable has.

Why is it sometimes advantageous to use only one group of subjects who serve as their own control? (p. 52) (See also Unit 2 (Chapter 2) Conceptual Exercises: Variables and Designs regarding between- and within-subjects design.) If all of the subjects within a group are the same for both the experimental and control phases, then most of the extraneous variables are neutralized, allowing for a more focus examinations of the differences between the two phases.

Explain the major advantages and disadvantages of the experimental method. (p. 53) Advantages of experimental research include permitting conclusions about cause-effect relationships between variables and the ability to draw conclusions about causation due to the precise control in the experiment. Researchers isolate the relationship between an independent and dependant variable, while neutralizing extraneous variables. The disadvantage is that the experiment can be artificial, meaning it wouldn't be as applicable in the real world, due to how experiments require great control to proceedings and the researchers must often make simple, contrived situations to test hypotheses.

Distinguish between the experimental and the

descriptive/correlational research methods. Discuss three descriptive

research methods (i.e., naturalistic observation, case studies, and

surveys). (pp. 54-56) While experimental research is empirical, but artificial, descriptive/correlational research is natural in the context of everyday life, but it's not empirical. Naturalistic observation is observing a subject as they are without intervention. It allows to study behaviour under conditions that are less artificial than in experiments, but if the subject becomes aware of the observer and the subjects behaviour is altered (reactivity) that can ruin the process. Case studies are in-depth investigations of a particular subject. Case studies work best when a collection of them are analyzed, looking for patterns that permit general conclusions. However, being that case studies are highly subjective, researchers can examine their findings and make conclusions in whatever way they want. Surveys are questionares and interviews that gather information about specific aspects of a participants behaviour. Surveys can obtain information about behaviour that is difficult to observe directly, and can gather information from a large sample of participants. However, self-reported data can distort participants' reports on their behaviour, and surveys are subject to sampling bias (subjects studied aren't reflective of the general population.

Explain the major advantages and disadvantages of

descriptive/correlational research. What is the main disadvantage of

descriptive/correlational research? (pp. 55-57) Descriptive/correlational research give researchers a way to explore questions that couldn't be examined with experimental procedures, and broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists are able to study. Unfortunately, the descriptive model investigators cannot control events to isolate cause and effect and cannot demonstrate conclusively that two variables are causally related.

Distinguish between a positive and a negative correlation. Explain

how the size of a correlation coefficient relates to the strength of an

association. (pp. 56-58)

Explain how a correlation relates to prediction and causation.

Provide and recognize original examples of two variables that are

positively or negatively correlated but that are not causally related.

(pp. 63-64)

Describe the importance of replication in scientific research. (pp. 65-66)

Comment: Replications are simply reruns of

experiments: the experiment is conducted again to see if it will produce

the same findings as the original experiment. Within psychology and the

other sciences, however, it is often difficult to publish research that

fails to replicate the original work. The data from such failed

replications are sometimes called negative results. There has

been an increasing recognition of this problem, and a few journals have

been started that only publish negative results.

Describe the four common flaws in research: sampling bias, placebo

effects, distortions in self-report data, and experimenter bias. (pp.

65-69) Sampling bias occurs when a sample is not representative of the population the study attempts to draw conclusions from. Placebo effects occur when participants expectations lead them to experience some change, even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment. Distortions in self-report data , such as the social desirability bias, response sets, or the halo effect, all contribute to the subject revealing false or exaggerated information about themselves, sometimes to create a favourable impression of the subject to others. Experimenter bias occurs when a researchers expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.

What is the double-blind procedure? (pp. 64-65) The double-blind procedure is a research strategy in which neither the subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the control group. This can help negate experimenter bias.

Discuss the controversy regarding the use of deception in psychological research. (p. 69) Deception is used to collect information about subjects without their knowledge of the particulars of the study. While it may help getting particular information, elaborate deception is seen by some scientists as immoral, and concerns of of the possibility of inflicting harm on somebody arises.

Comment: A key element in this chapter is Weiten and

McCann’s (2013) focus on ethical considerations. While the authors

focus on experimental research and most obviously on the use of

deception, other clear examples of abuse in clinical domains have

occurred within recent history. Consider that in the United Kingdom in

the mid-1970s, homosexuality was a criminal offence punishable by a

prison term or by treatment using electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) to

decondition the homosexual individual to homosexual urges. Although

perceptions about homosexuality have changed radically since then, most

psychologists at that time did not recognize these treatments as

abusive. A consciousness of ethical and human rights considerations

benefits everyone.

Discuss how Canada applies ethical guidelines to the use of animals as research subjects. (pp. 73-75) Ethical guidelines, as presented by the Canadian Psychological Association, are used to deal with how subjects with whom the psychologist comes into contact with should be treated. Effort must be made to minimize the discomfort felt, and animals would not be used as subjects unless there is a strong expectation that the results will benefit both humans and animals.

Comment: The latest Ethics Code of the APA Council

of Representatives was adopted in August, 2002, to take effect June,

2003. The principles (including 2010 amendments) can be accessed at http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx or http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/principles.pdf. The specific ethical code, as it relates to research, can be found under the Principle 8: Research and Publication (p. 10).

Explain how Chapter 2 highlights two of the Weiten and McCann (2013) text’s unifying themes. (p. 76) Based on how the research is implemented, the intricate procedures, and the scrutiny it is subjected to, this chapter encompasses the theme that psychology is empirical. As well, with the different type of biases that exist with the collection of data with alot of the methods used, this chapter also embodies the theme that peoples experience is highly subjective.

Describe the standard organization of a published journal article. (p. 77) Scientists publish their findings to various journals, many in which are organized in various subsets and types of psychology. They are written by professionals, for professionals, and are reports of original research. While research can be published in newspapers and magazines, they are usually paraphrased passages written by someone else who cites the original work, and being that they don't post the original work with the passage, psycINFO can be used to find the original research. It wades through thousands of journals to create a coherent central hub in which people can find the information requested.

Define anecdotal evidence. Describe the perils of using anecdotal evidence in the decision-making process. (pp. 80-81) Anecdotal evidence consists of personal stories about specific incidences and experiences. Anecdotes are very persuasive, but they need to be consider with a healthy serving of skepticism. Anecdotes are usually a single case study, where it's one study explaining either their own or the experience of someone else (hearsay). It also can be subject to both the social desirability bias and the sampling bias.