Functionalist and neo-functionalist

Theory and Methods- Functionalism

• Basic background of early functionalism
• Originated from 19th century French sociologists like Auguste Compte and Durkheim.
• Structural, consensus theory- members of society have shared interests.
• Functionalism was dominant in sociology until the 1970s.
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Durkheim's ideas

• Durkheim used the organic analogy to describe how society can adapt to its environment and all the subsystems within society work together.
• Institutions exist because of their functions for the maintenance of society.
• Functional analysis as a method has developed from the organic analogy; this process involves explaining why institutions exist in terms of the function they perform.
• Used positivist research methods- look for correlations/statistics. Quantitative data.
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• Pie de imagen: The organic analogy

Parson's ideas

• Suggests there are 4 basic needs (prerequisites) that society must satisfy:
• 1) Adaptation- society must be able to adapt to the current environment in order to provide an adequate standard of life for all its members.
• 2) Goal attainment- society must develop new ways of making decisions.
• 3) Integration- social harmony. Specialist institutions develop in order to minimalize potential conflict for example religion.
• 4) Latency- individual beliefs and values and how that individual copes with them. Latency can be further divided into two areas:
• Pattern maintenance: problems faced by people when conflicting demands are made of them.
• Tension management: society needs to motivate people to continue to belong to it and not oppose it.
• Each institution has a role and because of the existence of these roles society can continue to run smoothly.
• Society develops a value consensus.
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• Pie de imagen: Talcott Parsons

Social evolution and differentiation

• Parsons believes that the function prerequisites do not stay static, but they need to retain a degree of balance: if one part changes, the other parts change to adapt around it.
• This is referred to as moving equilibrium.
• Involves a change in cultural values or what parsons calls pattern variables. Pattern variables A is characteristic of pre-modern society and is based on emotional ties. Pattern variables B is typical of modern society and is based more on rationality and efficiency.
• Pattern variables A
• 1)Ascription
• 2) Diffuseness- people enter into relationships to satisfy a large range of needs
• 3) Particularism- act differently towards different people eg loyal to family but not strangers
• 4) Affectivity- immediate gratification
• 5) Collective orientation- interests of the group > own interests
• Pattern variables B
• 1) Achievement
• 2) Specificity- enter into relationships to satisfy particular needs
• 3) Universalism- act according to universal principles eg a police woman would arrest husband for a crime
• 4) Affective neutrality- deferred gratification
• 5) Self orientation- own interests > interests of the group

Internal criticisms of Functionalism

• Merton (developed strain theory as a critique of Durkheim's functionalist explanation of crime and deviance) argues Parsons view is too uncritical so proposed two amendments:
• Parsons ignores the fact that some institutions can be both dysfunctional for society and functional for instance, religion.
• An example of this is Islam Vs. Christianity
• (see Ayaan Hirsi Ali)
• Parsons failed to realise the distinction between manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) consequences of functions. Furthermore latent functions are not always desirable ones.
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External criticisms of functionalism

• Sharrock et al argue that there are several main criticisms of functionalism:
• It overemphasises the amount of consensus in society. People have different values and beliefs. Marxists point out that class differences exist.
• Positivist approach criticised by those that prefer the interpretivist approach where they seek to uncover the meanings between interactions etc..
• Society is in fact NOT like a living organism. There is no natural cycle or natural form.
• Struggle to explain social change. If, as Parsons claims, institutions exist to fulfil social needs, once these needs are fulfilled there would be no need for social change?
• Functional analysis only explains the effects of institutions not why they exist.
• Parsons ignores differences in power. E.g., feminists argue there is patriarchal power in society.
• Interactionists argue that parsons model portrays humans as puppets. They state that functionalism is thus too deterministic as it assumes individuals do not have their own free will. (social action theory)
• Logical criticisms- teleology is the idea that things exist because of their effect or function. Functionalists explain things in terms of their effects however critics argue that a real explanation is one that identifies its cause and logically a cause must come before an effect.
• Post-modernists- argue that this theory is redundant in modern society. It is a metanarrative, that fails to explain the complex, diverse changes of modern society.

Neo-functionalism

• Mouzelis and Alexander argue strongly for the overall systemic approach provided by Parsons.
• They dispute criticisms of Parsons and argue that with some modification his theory can allow for people to be reflexive and make decisions for themselves.
• These modifications can be used to help explain social change, thus removing one of the criticisms of traditional functionalism.