Flashcards
Fanny Adrian CP6
Cards in this deck (29)
- 16.1 Using the figure, describe the modal model of memory.Incoming information is first briefly stored in a "raw" sensory form in sensory memory (green, leftmost box). Visual input is stored in iconic memory and auditory input is stored in echoic memory. Through selection and interpretation the information passes on to short-term memory (STM; blue, middle box), where it is maintained via rehearsal (arrow pointing back to the same box). Some of the information from STM is lost, while other moves into long-term memory (LTM; purple, rightmost box). From there, information can be retrieved into STM again.
- 2(6.2 State the steps of the general memory process. )(A new piece of information is first acquired, then stored, and finally retrieved again. )
- 36.4 State 4 differences between working memory and long-term memory.(1) The capacity of working memory (WM) is limited, but the capacity of long-term memory (LTM) is not. (2) It is easy to get information into WM, but is effortful to store information in LTM. (3) Getting information out of WM is also easy, while it is effortful and sometimes impossible to get information out of LTM. (4) The contents of WM are quite fragile, but the contents of LTM are more durable and can last a life time.
- 46.5 What are the typical effects observed in free recall of a list of memorised items, and what are the associated terms?Free recall shows a typical pattern: accuracy of recall is dependent on an item’s serial position, and the relation between percentage of recalled items and serial position is U-shaped. The first items within a series are typically most accurately recalled, which is called the primacy effect. The last items of a series are also recalled fairly well, which is called the recency effect.
- 56.6 Describe how the recency effect observed in free recall of a list of memorised items can be eliminated and explain how this process works.The recency effect can be eliminated by introducing an additional task between memorising and recall. This extra task, for example counting backward by threes, constitutes new material and activation of different knowledge. Therefore, the last items that were memorised, can no longer be held in working memory but are replaced by elements of the new task.
- 66.7 Assume that in a list-learning experiment, the rate of presentation of to-be-remembered items is decreased, so the items are presented at a slower rate. What effect is observed on the percentage of words recalled as a function of the serial position? Explain what is driving this effect.Slowing the list presentation improves LTM-based retention of all items as items have a higher chance of being encoded in LTM, but it does not enhance the recency effect. This effect is caused by the additional rehearsals that can be performed due to the additional time provided by the slower presentation rate.
- 76.8 Describe the digit (or word) span procedure, and what are the main outcomes of this test?The span procedures measures an individual's working memory capacity. The individual is presented a short list of items (e.g., 3 - 6 - 4) and is asked to recall these items. Then a list one element longer is presented, and the participant is again asked to recall the items. The list length is increased until the individual starts making errors, and the longest list that the individual could recall correctly is assumed to reflect that individual's working memory span. The main outcome of this test is that people can recall about 7 items when chunking is not prevented, but also that there is quite some variability.
- 86.9 Explain what "7 plus or minus 2" means in relation to working memory."7 plus or minus 2" describes the number of items people can recall (assuming relatively short retention periods). WM span/capacity tasks have shown that people can typically hold between 5 and 9 elements of information in WM. This number if assumed to influenced by chunking, as when chunking is prohibited, the WM span/capacity is lower (~ 4 items).
- 96.10 Explain the meaning of a chunk by explaining how a learner will store the following two letter sequences in memory: (A) W R S C X P or (B) T R A N L OIn letter sequence A), one most likely has to memorise each letter inidividually, that is, each letter will be stored as one chunk. In sequence B), however, the letters can be combined into two syllables: TRAN and LO. In this sequence, the syllables comprise one chunk each. Sequence A) would therefore be memorised as six chunks and sequence B) as two chunks, although both sequences consist of six letters. Thus, a chunk is a package of connected information, that can be memorised together.
- 106.11 Describe what has changed if the digit span of a person has increased through practice.When a person's digit span increases through practice, this person acquired more efficient chunking strategies, which help to store more information into one chunk.
- 116.12 Describe the differences beween a operation span task and a digit span task.Operation span tasks require active processing of information, whereas a digit span tasks only requires a more static storage of information. Therefore, operation span tasks correlate better with measures of intellectual performance, such as test of reasoning or reading comprehension and standardised academic tests than digit span tasks. The operation span task also aligns better with the theoretical concept of working memory as a status of activation (the “most memory chunk that is currently most active, i.e., the one that we’re currently working on”), while the digit span task fits better with the earlier theoretical concept of working memory as a storage space.
- 126.13 State the names of the helper systems of working memory as proposed by Baddeley.The visuospatial sketchpad and the articulatory rehearsal loop are the helper systems of working memory, with the sketchpad storing visual and spatial information, and the loop storing auditory information (or information that can be stored in auditory form, such as visually presented words). More recent versions of Baddeley's theory also inlude an episodic buffer that is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing.
- 136.14 Explain which of the following statements is true, and why? A) Relational rehearsal is superior to maintenance rehearsal B) Maintenance rehearsal is superior to relational rehearsalA is correct. In order to create lasting memories of detailed aspects of the presented stimuli, one needs to engage in relational, or elaborative, rehearsal. This means that one has to attend to the new information and to think about it. Simply repeating some information over and over might result in shallow memorization, but it is unlikely that all details of the presented information will be retained.
- 146.15 State an example each for shallow and for deep processing and explain which process leads to better memory retention.Deciding whether a word that needs to be memorised fits in a certain sentence, is an example of deep processing. By engaging in this process, one thinks about the meaning and engages with the material. Counting the letters of a word is an example of shallow processing, because no attention is paid to the meaning of the word. Deep processing leads to better memory of the material than shallow processing, because deep processing makes people relate to the material and therefore enhances the creation of retrieval cues, whereas shallow processing only allows for a small number of connections to previous knowledge.
- 156.16 In a study, memory performance recaling a list of words was compared after different methods of engagement with the material. In one group, participants were asked to finde the 'e' in each word, in a second group participants had to decide how pleasant the word seemed, and a third group was instructed to learn the words for later testing. The figure depicts the observed results. Label the shortest bar, and explain what these results tell us.The group that was asked to find the 'e' in each word (bar 1) remembered the least words. The other two groups remembered about the same number of words. This experiment indicates that intention to learn does not necessarily make a differene, because the participants who thought about the words' pleasantness without the intention to learn, performed just as well as participants who where instructed to memorise the words. Rather, the level of processing influences memory: shallow processing, like finding the 'e', encodes the material less well than deep processing, such as rating the material's pleasantness.
- 166.17 Explain the role of intention in learningThe intention to learn leads people to approach the material in a certain fashion, and it is this approach, not the intention itself, that influences memory of the material. For example, people who genuinely want to learn something are paying attention to the material they want to memorise. In addition, they are thinking more deeply about it, for example they ask questions, connect it to existing knowledge and organise the material, which all leads to better understanding of the material than shallow processing, which usually happens in the absence of the intention to learn. Thus, intention induces the application of mechanisms that promote encoding and hence better later recall of new material.
- 176.18 Explain the significance of deep processing of new material, compared to shallow processing, using the analogy of categorising new books arriving at a library.Deep processing connects the new material to existing knowledge, and is therefore creating many retrieval cues. This processing of the material is like carefully cataloguing new books at a library and categorise them according to different aspects, for example by genre, the author and the year of publication. This thoughtful processing of new input is done at the arrival of the input, but it is crucial for easy retrieval and use of information at a later point in time. Shallow processing does not create many retrieval cues, because of the lack of attention to the input, and therefore impedes later retrieval. This can be compared to incomplete or indisctinct cataloguing of new books, for example by only organising books according to colour or by not categorising them at all. Thus, deep processing means carefully and attentively processing the incoming information in order to facilitate later retrieval.
- 186.19 What type of encoding is most likely to create memories that are easy to retrieve? Explain why.Deep en elaborate encoding is most likely to create easily retrievable memories as by means of deep and eleborate encoding the information is reoganised and connected to existing knowledge, making later retrieval easier or more successful.
- 196.20 What is the basis underlying mnemonic memory strategies?Mnemonic strategies all involve the principle that organization helps. If an organization can be found within the materials itself, this organization is used to aid later retrieval. If no organization can be found, and external organization can be imposed.
- 206.21 Are mnemonic strategies always useful to remember information? Explain why or why not.Mnemonic strategies are helpful to learn information, because they organise material and establish connections. However, mnemonics usually set the focus on just one aspect of the material, leaving out many others. Therefore, general understanding and learning the broader meaning of the material might be disregarded, because the attention to one or two connections leaves less attention to the many other possible connections of the material. Thus, mnemonics can be very helpful for learning, but they come with a trade-off. However, for some material, for example remembering the colors a rainbow, where the order of colors is the main information one wants to know, mnemonics promote exactly the right characteristics.
- 216.22 Describe what this image illustrates in relation to memory.People who perceive this image as a pattern of meaningless blotches are unlikely to form a memory of it. However, when people discovered the "hidden" forms in the image, they are very likely to remember the image. This demonstrates that seeing meaning in material increases the chances of encoding and/or later recall.
- 226.23 What kind of process or strategy can participants use to increase their scores obtained in a digit span task?When participants can "chunk" the presented information in bigger units ("chunks"), the participants can recall more information. For example, when the number presented to a participant have a certain meaning (e.g., an old telephone number), the participant needs only one "entry" in working memory to store those 7 or 8 numbers.
- 236.24 Explain whether the following statement is correct or not: "Memory is attention in the past tense".The statement is true, because people remember what they have paid attention to and generally do not remember aspects that they have not paid attention to.
- 246.25 What do attention and working-memory have in common?Attention and WM are both capacity-limited systems.
Furthermore, the executive control processes related to attention are equivalent to WM’s central executive. - 256.26 Rinck (1999) conducted experiments in order to elucidate whether memory for numerical layouts encountered in everyday life (see figure below), is as poor as for other everyday objects. Rinck found that people’s memory for the layout of numbers on keypads is indeed poor. Why do we remember these layouts so poorly despite encountering them frequently?Long-lasting memories of the layouts are not formed by repeated exposures to them. To remember a certain piece of information in the long-term, one has to be attentive to it and rehearse it elaborately. Since the use of keypads of telephones and calculators does not involve paying a great deal of attention to their layout (and consequentially no elaborative rehearsal), their arrangement is remembered quite poorly.
- 266.27 You remember the shopping list shown below in the following way: You imagine a carrot stuck into a bun, the elegant shoes of an Italian lady making pasta, a tree with croissants hanging from it instead of fruit and a door with a sign on it saying: “Welcome to my soap opera.”. What is the name of this mnemonic strategy and how does it work?The used strategy is called a peg-word system. The system allows you to impose an organization onto the items to be remembered, (e.g. “One is a bun. Two is a shoe. Three is a tree. …”), using the last words of this structure as “pegs” on which you can “hang” the specific item. In addition, mental imagery is used to link the pegs with the items.
- 276.28 What factors do determine a person’s success in memorizing new information?The extent of a person’s effort to organize and understand the new information and the knowledge the person already possesses will determine his or her success in memorizing new information.
- 286.29 Explain why the conceptual separation of the memory process into the distinct steps of acquisition, storage and retrieval may be misleading.To memorize new information, connections between already existing knowledge and the new information are established. Hence, the acquisition stage is intertwined with the retrieval of already stored information.
Moreover, acquisition of new information is contingent upon information in storage since the stored information, or in other words the knowledge one has, influences the number and sorts of connections being formed. - 29!!!Use figure 1 to describe modal model, focuss on storage duration andcapacity of different stages. !!!question 2
Information
- Description
- Psychologie Flashcards on Fanny Adrian CP6, created by Adrian Mayer on 15/11/2017.
- Created by
- Adrian Mayer · Nov 2017
- Updated
- Oct 26, 2019
- Views
- 0
- Rating