Psycopathology

Question	Answer
Psycopathology	The psychological study of diseases.
Statistical Deviation	When an individual has a less common characteristic out of the majority. An example of this is IQ tests. The further we move away from the the average score the fewer the people with get that score.
Deviation from Social norms	Behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community. It offends their sense of what is acceptable of the norm. We make a collective judgement as a society about what is right. An example of this is the culture that we live in and the generation we were born in.
Failure to function adequately	When someone can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life. Research-Rosenhan and Seligman(1989) established signs to determine whether someone was coping: -Severe personal distress. -Irrational or dangerous behaviour. -No longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules. Limitations: -Subjective interpretation. -Vague. -Dangerous behaviour depends on occupation. -Different levels of personal distress.
Deviation from ideal mental health	If you differ from being normal you are deviating from ideal mental health, therefore you are abnormal. Ideal mental health is almost impossible to determine. Research-Marie Johado(1958) says we have good mental health if we follow this criteria: -No symptoms of distress. -Good self-esteem. -Rational and can perceive other accurately. -Independent of other people. -Realistic view of the world.
Phobias	An irrational fear of an object or situation. DSM5 recognises the following categories of phobias: -Specific phobias. -Social phobias. -Agoraphobia.
Behavioural characteristics of phobias	1.Panic (Screaming or Crying) 2.Avoidance (Avoiding your phobia) 3. Endurance (Enduring your phobia)
Emotional characteristics of phobias	Anxiety-An unpleasant state of arousal. Fear-The immediate and extremely unpleasant response to the phobia. The emotional responses are unreasonable.
Cognitive characteristics of phobias	1.Selective Attention to the phobia-You prioritise your phobia and ignore any other information. 2.Irrational beliefs- A Phobic may hold irrational beliefs in relation to the phobic stimulus. 3.Cognitive distortions-The phobic's perceptions of the phobic stimulus may be distorted.
The two-process model	Howard Mowrer(1960) proposed the 2 process model based on the behavioual approach to phobias. Phobias are learnt in the first place through classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning.
Maintaining a phobia	Operant conditioning. An individual avoids an unpleasant situation. This is negative reinforcement as the individual is removing something bad in order to achieve something good. This results in a desirable consequence because fear and anxiety have been reduced. This reinforces the avoidance behaviour, hence the phobia is maintained.
Evaluation of the Behavioural explanation for phobias.	Strength: Good Explanatory Power The 2-process model went beyond Watson and Rayner's concept of classical conditioning. It explained how phobias were aquired and then maintained over time. This has important implications for therapies as it explains why patients need to be exposed to the feared stimulus in order to overcome the phobia. Hence, this application to therapy is a strength to the 2-process model. Weakness: Alternative Explanation for avoidance behaviour. Not all avoidance behaviour associated with phobias has to be the result of anxiety reduction. Some avoidance behaviour is due to the patient being motivated to positive feelings of safety. This is a weakness of the 2-process model as it states that all avoidance behaviour is motivated by anxiety reduction.
Systematic Desensitisation	A behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning. 3 processes involved: Anxiety Hierarchy- A list of situations related to the phobic stimulus that provoke anxiety arranged in order from least to most frightening. Relaxation- The therapist teaches the patient to relax as deeply as possible. This might involve deep breathing, visualisation or listening to relaxing music. Exposure-Finally the patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state. This takes place across several sessions, starting at the bottom of the anxiety hierarchy. When the patient can stay relaxed they move up the hierarchy.
Evaluation of Systematic Desensitisation as a treatment for phobias	Strength: It is effective The treatment process is deemed to be effective which is a significant strength of the treatment. The treatment is also very effective for specific phobias as shown in Gilroy et Al(2003) where 42 patients underwent Systematic Desensitisation to overcome their phobia of spiders. Compared to a control group which only used relaxation techniques, Systematic Desensitisation proved effective as 3 and 33 months after the treatment patients were still cured of their phobia. Strength: It is appropriate for a diverse range of patients The treatment is tailored to the majority of patients as it is less traumatic than other treatments i.e Flooding and cognitive therapies which are not suitable for patients with learning difficulties. Strength: It is acceptable to patients This is because systematic desensitisation does not cause the same degree of trauma as flooding. It also includes relaxation techniques whihc some patients prefer and actually enjoy. This is reflected in the low refusal rates and the low attrition rates.
Flooding	A behavioural therapy in which a phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of their phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus. It takes place across a small number of long therapy sessions. It works by stopping phobic responses very quickly. This may be because without the option of avoidance, the patient quickly learns that the phobia is harmless. This is called extinction.
Evaluation of Flooding	Strength: Cost effective Flooding is as effective as treating specific phobias and is also quicker than alternative treatments. Patients can be free from their phobia quicker which makes treatment quicker. This is therefore a strength of flooding. Weakness: Traumatic Flooding is a highly traumatic experience. Patients give their informed consent so the treatment is not unethical, however, many patients do not see it till the end as it is highly traumatic. This is a limitation to the treatment as time and money can be wasted. Weakness: Less effective for some types of phobia This is because flooding is ineffective at treating complex phobias such as social phobias. This may because these sort of phobias contain cognitive aspects. The phobic patient may therefore benefit from cognitive therapies to tackle the irrational thoughts.
Depression	A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels. DSMI 5 recognises that there are the following categories of depression: -Major depressive disorder. -Persistent depressive disorder. -Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. -Premenstrual dysphoric disorder.
Behavioural Characteristics of Depression	Activity levels Disruption to sleeping and eating Aggression and Self-harm
Emotional Characteristics	Lowered mood Anger Lowered Self-esteem
Cognitive Characteristics	Poor concentration Attending to and dwelling on the negative-Pessimist Absolutist thinking
The cognitive approach to explaining depression: Beck's Theory	Aaron Beck(1967)- It's a persons cognitions that create a vulnerability to depression. 1. Faulty Information processing 2. Negative self-schemas 3. The negative triad
Faulty information processing	Selective attention to the negative aspects of situations. Examples: Black and White thinking Generalisiation Selective thinking Catastrophising
Negative self-schemas	A schema is a mental framework of beliefs and expectations. Information developed through experience. Depressed individuals have a negative self-schema-These develop through negative experiences through their childhood.
The Negative Triad	1. Negative view of the self-Emotions of low self-esteem. 2. Negative view of the future-Reduce hopefulness and enhance depression. 3. Negative view of the world-No hope anywhere.
Evaluation of Becks cognitive theory of depression	Strength: Good supporting evidence Beck's theory of depression has a lot of evidence to prove that its effective and that depression is associated with it's 3 factors. Grazilii and Terry(2000) assessed 65 pregnant women before they had given birth to see if they had a vulnerability for depression. They found that all those women had suffered depression and that it could be linked to Beck's theory. Weakness: It does not explain all aspects of depression Depression is complex and Beck's theory cannot easily explain other factors i.e emotions. Some sufferers of depression have hallucinations and bizzare beliefs. Beck's theory cannot easily explain this so therefore it is a weakness of the theory. Strength: Practical application in CBT This is because Beck's cognitive explanation forms the basis of cognitive behavioural therapy. This involves the therapist challenging the patients negative thoughts of themselves and others. This is a strength of the explanation as it translates into a successful therapy.
Ellis' ABC model	Albert Ellis(1962) -Depression and anxiety results from irrational thoughts. Irrational thoughts- Any thoughts that interfere with us being happy and free of pain. The ABC model explains how irrational thoughts affect both our behavioural and emotional state. A-Activating event B-Beliefs which are irrational C-Consequences Types of irrational beliefs: Musturbation-The belief that we must always succeed or achieve perfection. Utopianism- The belief that life is always meant to be fair
Evaluation of Ellis's ABC model	Weakness: A partial explanation Only some cases of depression follow an activating event. It is know as reactive depression and psychologists see it as different to other forms. This means that Ellis's explanation is only a partial explanation so lacks validity. Strength: It as practical application in CBT Ellis's ABC model has led to a successful therapy. The idea that, by challenging irrational negative beliefs, a person can reduce their depression is supported by Lipsky et al (1980). This in turn supports the basic theory. Weakness: Does not explain all aspects of depression This is because the explanation does not easily explain the anger associated with depression or the fact that some patients suffer hallucinations and delusions.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy	Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a talking therapy that can help you manage your problems by changing the way you think and behave. It is based on the concept that your thoughts, feelings, physical sensations and actions are interconnected, and that negative thoughts and feelings can trap you in a vicious cycle. CBT aims to help you crack this cycle by breaking down overwhelming problems into smaller parts and showing you how to change these negative patterns to improve the way you feel. During the sessions, you will work with your therapist to break down your problems into their separate parts – such as your thoughts, physical feelings and actions. You and your therapist will analyse these areas to work out if they are unrealistic or unhelpful and to determine the effect they have on each other and on you. Your therapist will then be able to help you work out how to change unhelpful thoughts and behaviours.
Evaluation of CBT	Strength: It is effective CBT is very effective as there is a large amount of evidence to support it's success. A study by March et Al compared the effects of CBT with antidepressants. The study showed that CBT was just as effective as antidepressants, however, together they worked most efficiently. Weakness: CBT may not work for the most severe cases of depression CBT requires a lot of commitment from the patient who is willing to participate. In some cases depression can be so severe that patients find it hard to get engaged with the long process. This is a weakness of CBT because it means that the therapy cannot be used as the sole treatment of depression.
OCD	A condition characterised by obsessions and/ or compulsions. DSM-5 categories of OCD: -Trichotillomania -Hoarding disorder -Excoriation disorder
Behavioural characteristics of OCD	1. Compulsions (They are repetitive and they reduce anxiety) 2. Avoidance
Emotional characteristics of OCD	1. Anxiety and distress 2. Accompanying depression 3. Guilt and disgust
Cognitive characteristics of OCD	1. Obsessive thoughts 2. Cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions 3. Insight into excessive anxiety
The Biological approach to explaining OCD: Genetic explanation	Genes are involved in individual vulnerability to OCD. Lewis (1936) suggested that OCD run families. One generation passes on their genetic vulnerability of OCD to the next. Candidate genes are genes which create a vulnerability for OCD. OCD is polygenic meaning it is caused by several genes. The origin of OCD has different causes.
The Biological approach to explaining OCD: Neural explanation	The genes associated with OCD are likely to effect the level of key neurotransmitters. If a person has low levels of serotonin then normal transmission of mood relevant information does not take place. Consequently mood is affected. OCD can be linked to impaired decision making. This in turn may be associated with abnormal functioning of the lateral of the frontal lobes.
Evaluation of the genetic explanation	Strength: Good supporting evidence Twin and family studies have been found to show higher concordance rates for OCD compared to the general population. This suggests that some element of genetics is involved. Weakness: Environment The fact that not all twins share OCD tendencies despite having the exact same genetics suggest that it cannot be genes alone. This means this explanation is reductionist and oversimplified. This clearly shows that environmental stressors must play a part in triggering OCD.
Evaluation of the neural explanation	Strength: Some supporting evidence There is evidence to support the role of some neural mechanisms in OCD. For example, some antidepressants work purely on the serotonin system, increasing levels to reduce OCD symptoms. Weakness: Not clear what neural mechanisms are involved No system has been found that always plays a role in OCD. Therefore, we cannot really claim to understand the neural mechanisms involved.
Drug therapy	Antidepressants are the most commonly used therapy for treating OCD. They are believed to bring serotonin levels back to normal but also help to reduce anxiety. The preferred drugs are SSRI's which work by inhibiting re-uptake of serotonin by blocking receptor cells. This alleviates OCD tendencies. SSRI's can also be combined with CBT. Tricyclics are also been used to treat OCD. These have the same effect on the serotonin system as SSRI's. However, it has more serious side effects so is generally kept in reserve. SNRI's have also been used to treat OCD. They increase the levels of serotonin as well as noradrenaline. However, these should only be given to patients who do not respond to SSRI's.
Evaluation of Drug therapy	Strength: Cost-effective Antidepressant drugs are cheap to manufacture, easy to administer and user-friendly compared to psychological treatments such as CBT. They are fast acting and effective allowing individuals to manage their symptoms and live normal lives. Weakness: Side-effects Although SSRI's are helpful for sufferers of OCD, a number of side-effects are associated with them. Side-effects include blurred vision, loss of appetite, loss of sex drive and in some cases aggression and suicidal thoughts. Such factors reduce the effectiveness because people stop taking the medication. Strength: Research support Drug therapies are effective compared to placebo's in the treatment of OCD. Pigott et al (1999) reviewed studies testing the effectiveness of drug therapies and concluded that SSRI's have been consistently proven as effective in reducing OCD symptoms.

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	Created by Ellie Shuter over 8 years ago