Flashcards
Memory
Flashcards do conjunto (100)
- 1Define coding.The process of converting information from one form to another. Also the format in which information is stored in the many memory stores.
- 2Give the coding, duration and capacity of STM.Acoustic coding.
Duration of 18 to 30 seconds.
Capacity of 5 to 9 items. - 3What research did Baddeley carry out on coding?He put pps into 4 groups and gave them all different word groups to remember.
- Acoustically similar.
- Acoustically unsimilar.
- Semantically similar.
- Semantically unsimilar.
Without a time interval, when asked to recall, the pps did worse with acoustically similar words but after a time interval the pps found it hardest to recall the semantically similar words. - 4Give the coding, duration and capacity of LTM?Coded semantically.
Duration and capacity potentially unlimited. - 5Who did the research on digit span and what did it consist of?Joseph Jacobs - Began by asking pps to recall 4 digits and increased this by one digit each time until they could no longer recall all the digits. The mean for digits was 9.3 and for letters it was 7.3.
- 6Who carried out research on span of memory and chunking and what did they do?Miller - Observed everyday practices and realised that many things come in 7. Eg) 7 days of the week, 7 notes of a music scale. Suggest the span/capacity of STM is 7. Also noticed people could recall 5 letters as well as 5 numbers which they did by chunking.
- 7How did the research on the duration of STM and what did they do?Peterson and Peterson - Each pp was given a trigram to remember and were told to count down from a 3 digit number to prevent rehearsal. They were each also given a different retention time. Shows STM has a short duration without rehearsal.
- 8Give a limitation of Jacob's study.Conducted a long time ago and experiments which were conducted a long time ago often lack control so there would have been confounding variables. Eg) Distractions. Therefore results may not be valid.
- 9Give a limitation of Miller's research.May have overestimated the capacity of the STM as Covan believes the capacity is only 4 chunks.
- 10Give a limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study.Artificial stimuli was used which doesn't reflect real life activities and so it lacks external validity.
- 11Who conducted the study on the duration of LTM and what did they do?Bahrick et al studied American pps aged between 17 and 74 and asked them to recall the names of people in their school year by looking at photographs in their year book. After 15 years from graduation photo recognition was 90% accurate and it only fell to 70% after 48 years.
- 12Give a strength of Bahrick et al's experiment.There wasn't artificial stimuli so it has a high external validity.
- 13Define spontaneous decay and give 2 ways in which it may happen.When a memory trace disappears. Could be due to not rehearsing it or due to information being displaced due to limited capacity.
- 14Define chunking.Grouping sets of digits or letter into groups.
- 15Define capacity.The amount of information that can be held in a memory store.
- 16Define duration.The length of time in which information can be held in a memory store.
- 17Define the multi-store model of memory.A representation of how memory works in terms of the three memory stores - the sensory register, STM and LTM. It also describes how information is transferred from one store to another as well as how it's remembered and forgotten.
- 18Describe the sensory register.Iconic and echoic stores with very brief duration, high capacity.
- 19How does information move from the sensory register to the STM?Paying attention to it.
- 20What is maintenance rehearsal?When we repeat material to ourselves over and over to keep it in our short term memory.
- 21What is elaborative rehearsal?When we repeat things to ourselves enough that it passes through into our long term memory.
- 22What is retrieval?When info has to be moved from the LTM to the STM in order to recall it.
- 23Describe how the case study of HM supports the MSM?He had surgery to help his epilepsy however it wasn't well planned out and left his with no LTM, however he still performed well in STM tasks, which shows they're two different stores.
- 24How does Baddeley support MSM?He found out we mix up acoustically similar words in our STM and semantically similar words in our LTM which shows the stores are separate and individual.
- 25What other research supports the MSM?The previous experiments on duration and capacity.
- 26What's a limitation of the MSM in terms of the STM?Shallice and Warrington studied someone with amnesia and found that we couldn't recall numbers that he was read but he could recall numbers that he read himself.
It shows that the STM isn't a unitary store and that there's one for auditory information and one for visual information. - 27What's another limitation of the MSM in terms of rehearsal?It tells us that all that matters is how much rehearsal we do, however Craik and Watkinds discovered this was wrong and found out about maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.
- 28Give 2 more problems with the MSM?- All the supporting research uses artificial materials.
- Also research that shows that LTM isn't a unitary store either. - 29Who proposed that there were 3 different types of LTM stores?Tulving
- 30Name the 3 types of LTM and what they are.1) Episodic - Memory for events in our lives.
2) Semantic - Our knowledge of the world.
3) Procedural - Memory for automatic and often skilled behaviours. - 31What clinical evidence supports the three types of LTM?HM & Clive Wearing - After suffering amnesia, episodic memory was severely impaired however their semantic and procedural memory were relatively unaffected. It's evidence which shows that different memories are stored in different places.
- 32How does neuroimaging support the three LTM stores?Tulving et al got pps to perform different tasks whilst having their brains scanned. Found semantic memories were recalled from left prefrontal cortex whilst episodic were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex. It supports the view that there is a physical reality to the different stores which has also been proved by many other experiments, increasing it's validity.
- 33What is a real life application of the three LTM stores?It allows psychologists to target different parts of people's memories and to better people's lives. Eg) We now know that episodic memory is best treated using cognitive therapy.
- 34What is the problem with clinical evidence?There's a serious lack of control with many different variables.
- 35What is the working memory?The bit of memory you use when you're working on something. It's the part of the mind that's active when temporarily storing and manipulating information.
- 36Describe the job of the central executive.It co-ordinates slave systems and allocates resources, very limited storage.
- 37Describe the role of the phonological loop.It deals with auditory information (acoustic coding) and conserves the order that the information arrives in.
It consists of the phonological store which stores the words that you hear and the articulatory process which allows maintenance rehearsal. - 38What's the capacity of the phonological loop?Two seconds worth of what you can say.
- 39Describe the visuo-spatial sketchpad.Stores visual and special information.
Consists of a visual cache - stores visual information.
And the inner scribe which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field. - 40Describe the role of the episodic buffer.Integrates the processing of all the slave systems and records the order of events. Limited capacity of 4 chunks. It links the working memory to the LTM and wider cognitive processes like perception.
- 41What does our PL contribute to?Our learning of the sounds of language. It accesses the LTM to store and retrieve info on language sounds.
- 42What clinical evidence supports the WMM?Shallice and Warrington's study of patient KF with brain damage. He has poor STM ability for verbal information but not for visual information. Suggests that phonological loop was damaged but that the visuo-spatial sketchpad wasn't.
- 43Why might this not be reliable?As it concerns unique cases.
- 44What supports the existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?Baddeley et al - Showed that pps had a problem when it came to doing two visual tasks eg) following a light and describing the letter F, than when they were given both a visual and verbal task. This difficulty was because the tasks competed for the same slave system which means that there must be a separate slave system for processing visual input.
- 45What is a limitation of the WMM?Baddley argues that the central executive isn't fully understood. Some psychologists argue there could be different compartments, which means that the WMM hasn't been fully explained.
- 46How does brain scanning support the WMM?Braver et al gave pps tasks involving the central executive whilst having their brain scanned. When tasks got harder the activity in the CE increased which shows that it had to work harder to fulfil its function.
- 47Define interference as an explanation for forgetting.When two pieces of information conflict each other, resulting in one or both being forgotten or the memories being distorted.
- 48What would this explanation of forgetting be due to in the LTM?Accessibility rather than availability.
- 49Define proactive interference.When an older memory conflicts a newer one. Eg) A teacher not being able to learn the names of students in her new classes because she already knew too many names from her old class.
- 50Define retroactive interference.When a newer memory conflicts an older one. Eg) A teacher has learnt all the names of students in her old class that she can't remember the names of students from previous years.
- 51What investigation did McGeoch and McDonald do into interference.Procedure --> Studied retroactive procedure by changing how similar two material sets are. The pps memorised a set of words until they could recall it. They then learnt one of 6 other word lists.
1) Synonyms of the first list.
2) Atonyms of the first list.
3) Unrelated words.
4) Nonsense syllables.
5) 3 digit numbers.
6) No new list, pps rested.
Findings --> Group 1 had worst recall of previous word list, which shows that retroactive interference is strongest when memories are similar. (Competitive interference.) - 52Give 5 evaluation points for interference.Evidence from lab studies.
Artificial materials.
Real life studies.
Time between learning.
Interference can be overcome using cues. - 53Explain evidence from lab studies.This is a strength as lab experiments are highly controlled and therefore high in validity, proving that interference is a valid explanation for forgetting in the LTM.
- 54Explain artificial material.Interference is much more likely to be displayed in labs than in real life studies, therefore it lacks external ecological validity and is unlikely to be an explanation for forgetting.
- 55Explain real life studies.Baddeley and Hitch asked rugby players to recall the names of teams they'd played so far in the season, week by week. For some, the last match may have been a few days ago, for others it may have been a few weeks ago. However, this time interval didn't effect the recall. The recall was better if they hadn't played any matches since the time they were being asked to recall. Shows that interference can be applied to at least some everyday situations, boosts ecological validity.
- 56Explain time between learning.In lab experiments, the design is to maximise the possibility of interference and so short retention times are used. This means that it lowers the validity of interference as an explanation for forgetting LTM memories. This limits its apply to everyday life and lacks its ability to be generalised.
- 57Explain interference can be overcome using cues.Tulving & Psotka gave 5 lists of words to 24 pps, each organised into categories. The categories were not explicit but pps were asked if they could identify them. Recall was 70% for the first list but this kept decreasing for the rest, presumably due to interference. At the end they were given a cued-recall test - they were told the categories. Recall rose to 70% again. Shows that interference may not be the best explanation for forgetting as it can be prevented.
- 58Define retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting.When we can't access the memories in the LTM because there's a lack of cues available at the time of recall which were stored when the information were originally placed in the memory.
- 59Define cues.A 'trigger' of information which allows us to access a memory. It can be meaningful or indirectly linked ie) external or internal cues.
- 60Explain encoding specificity principle (ESP).Tulving reviewed research into retrieval failure and summaries what he found into the ESP. This states that if a cue will help us to recall info, it must be present at encoding and retrieval. Following that if the cues available at both these times are different or absent, there will be some forgetting.
- 61Give 2 types of cues as well as examples.1) Cues that are related to the info in a meaningful way. Eg) The cue 'STM' may cause you to recall all the info you know about the short term memory.
2) Others are encoded at the same time as info in a non meaningful way. Eg) Context and state dependent forgetting. - 62Give a study for context dependent forgetting.Godden and Baddely gave divers a list of words to learn and gave them different conditions to memorize them and recall them in.
Condition 1 - Learn and recall on land.
2 - Learn on land, recall underwater.
3) Learnt underwater, learnt on land.
4 - Learn and recalled underwater.
Findings --> Accurate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions. Retrieval failure was caused because the external cues were different at the time of learning and the time of recall. - 63Gave a study for state-dependent forgetting.Carter and Cassaday used a similar procedure to the one above but varied the mental state of pps using a drug which makes you slightly drowsy.
Condition 1 - Learnt on drug, recalled no on drug etc.
Findings --> Performance in memory was significantly lower when there was a difference in internal states during encoding and recall. When cues were absent there is more forgetting. - 64Name 4 evaluation points on retrieval failure.Supporting evidence.
Questioning context effects.
Recall vs Recognition
Real Life Application - 65Explain supporting evidence.Many pieces of research support retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting. This increases the internal and external validity as it shows that it retrieval failure can be true for both real life situations and highly controlled ones like labs.
- 66Explain questioning context effects.Baddeley argues that context effects aren't very strong unless they're extremely different, so not just different rooms. This means that retrieval failure due to contextual cues doesn't actually explain much forgetting.
- 67Explain recall vs recognition.Godden and Baddeley replicated their experiment by asking pps whether or not they recognised words, not asking them to recall them. There was no difference in performance between the 4 conditions. Shows a further limitation because it means that the absence or presence of cues only effects memory when it's tested in a certain way.
- 68Explain real-life applications.Cues are the basic principle of cognitive interviews, they take eyewitnesses to the crime scene or get them to imagine it to remember more information. Increases validity of the cues and therefore retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting.
- 69Give 2 factors that affect eye witness testimony.- Leading questions.
- Post-event discussion. - 70Define post event discussion.When co-witnesses talk to each other about what they have just witnessed which could lead to their testimonies becoming contaminated, due to other (mis)information being combined with their own.
- 71How was this tested?Gabbert and colleagues took pairs of pps and showed each member of the pair a footage from the same crime scene but from different angles. They were then told to discuss what they'd just seen.
Findings --> 71% of pps wrongly recalled parts of the crime that weren't in their footage but was in their partners. In the control group this was 0%. They concluded that memory conformity took place in which the pps went along with what each other had said to either win social approval or because they though they were wrong. - 72Define Eyewitness Testimony.The ability of people to remember events eg accidents and crimes, which they've observed. It can be affected by misleading information.
- 73Define misleading information.Incorrect information given to the eyewitnesses usually after an event. It can take the form of leading questions and post-event discussions.
- 74Define leading questions.A question which suggests an answer due to how it's phrased.
- 75Give a study for leading questions.Loftus and Palmer got student pps to watch a clip of a car accident and then answer question about it. One of these questions was the critical 'leading' question; 'How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?' There were 5 groups and each one was given a different verb; hit, contacted, bumped, collided or smashed.
Findings --> Contacted had an average speed of 31.8mph whereas smashed has an average of 40.5mph. This shows the leading question had a bias of the eyewitness' recall of the event. - 76Give 5 evaluation points for misleading information.- Useful real life applications.
- Artificial tasks.
- Individual differences.
- Demand characteristics.
- Consequences of EWT. - 77Explain useful real life applications.All research into misleading info has useful applications in the real world where consequences of an inaccurate EWT can be very severe. Loftus believes that police officers need to be careful about how they ask their questions as they can have a distorting effect on memory. Psychologists believe that studying EWTs can have a positive difference by things such as improving the legal system.
- 78Explain artificial tasks.With Loftus and Palmer, the pps watched films of car accidents. This is very different to observing a real life accident, mainly because it's less stressful. There's evidence that emotions can affect emotions. This is a limitation as using artificial stimuli tells us little about how leading questions affect EWTs in real events.
- 79Explain individual differences.There's evidence that older people give more accurate EWTs, particularly when having to identify people of their own age. This is a limitation as studies often use younger people as the target to identify and so it may appear that some age groups are less accurate when in fact they're not.
- 80Explain demand characteristics.Zaragosa and McCloskey argue many pps in lab studies of EWTs give answers as a result of demand characteristics to seem helpful. Eg) If they were asked if they saw a blue car in the clip, they may answer yes to appear more helpful.
- 81Explain consequences of EWT.Foster et al pointed out that what you remember as an EW can have a very important consequence in the real world which don't occur in real life studies. More pressure = less valid answers.
- 82Define anxiety.A state of emotional and physical arousal including emotions of worry and tension. Physical changes include an increased heart rate and sweating. A normal reaction to stressful situations.
- 83Describe a study for anxiety's negative effect.Johnson and Scott made pps think they were taking part in a lab study. Whilst in the waiting room they heard a loud argument in the next room. The low stress condition was a man walking through the waiting room with grease on his hands, carrying a pen. The high stress condition was the argument followed by the sound of broken glass and a man walking through with a knife covered in blood.
Findings --> Pps had to pick out the man from 50 photos. 49% of the low anxiety condition correctly identified the plan whereas only 33% of the high anxiety group correctly identified him. The tunnel theory of memory suggest that people's attention was focussed to the weapon as it's the source of anxiety. - 84Why can anxiety have a negative effect?Psychological arousal may prevent us from paying attention to important cues and so recall is worse.
- 85How can anxiety have a positive effect?Anxiety can cause a flight or fight effect which increases our alertness and improved our memory of the event as we become more aware of the situation.
- 86Give a study for the positive effect on anxiety.Yuille and Cutshall conducted a study of a real life gun shooting. 13/21 witnesses agreed to take part. They were interviewed 4-5 months later and compared the interviews with the original ones. Accuracy was determined by the number of details in each account. Witnesses also had to rank how stressed they were at the incident on a 7 point scale and whether they'd had emotional problems since.
Findings --> Witnesses were all very accurate, there were little inconsistencies. Those that rated themselves at a high stress level were around 88% accurate whereas those that put themselves at a low stress level were only 71% accurate. - 87Describe the inverted U theory.Yerkes and Dodson constructed the inverted U shaped graph, however it was Deffenbacher that applied it to EWT.
- 88Give 5 evaluation points on the affect of anxiety?- Weapon focus may not be relevant.
- Field studies lack control.
- Ethical issue.
- Inverted U is too simplistic.
- Demand characteristics in lab studies of anxiety. - 89Explain weapon focus being irrelevant.Johnson and Scott's study may test surprise rather than anxiety, which therefore mean that the pps only focus on the weapon due to shock, not anxiety. Pickel conducted a similar investigation using scissors, a wallet, a handgun and a raw chicken in a hairdressers. Accurate recall was highest for both the handgun and the raw chicken. This suggest that the weapon effect could be due to the unusualness rather than anxiety, decreasing the usefulness and validity of the study in terms of EWT.
- 90Explain field studies lack control.Researchers interview the witnesses sometime after the event in which all sorts of things would have happened to them, out of the researchers control. Eg) Post event discussion. This is a limitation as those extraneous variables are responsible for the accuracy of recall. The effects of anxiety may be overwhelmed by those factors making them impossible to assess.
- 91Explain ethical issues.Creating anxiety is risky and arguably unethical and it's causing potential psychological harm, which is why real life studies are so helpful.
- 92Explain inverted U is too simplistic.Anxiety is difficult to define accurately as there are many types such as cognitive, behavioural, emotional and physical. The inverted U assumes only physical arousal is linked to performance.
- 93Explain demand characteristics.Most use a filmed and staged crime and will be aware they're watching it for the purpose of the investigation. The please you/screw you effect may take place in which the pps will purposely pay closer attention or not as much attention, making the results unreliable and invalid.
- 94Who came up with the idea of Cognitive Interview Technique.Fisher and Geiselman.
- 95What are the 4 stages of CI?1) Context reinstatement.
Recalling the scene eg) weather, thoughts and feelings.
2) Report everything.
Every detail must be reported, even if it seems irrelevant.
3) Recall from a changed perspective.
Encourages different retrieval path.
4) Recall in reverse order.
Makes recall more accurate because the scene isn't being reconstructed based on schemas. - 96.Define cognitive interviewA method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories.
- 97Give 3 evaluation points of CI.Time consuming and expensive.
Evidence to show that a least some parts improve accuracy.
Increases inaccurate information. - 98Explain time consuming and expensive.Training is time consuming and expensive. The reports are often very long, which take a long time to go through and pick out all the useful information.
- 99Explain evidence point.Milne and Bull found that each element was equally as valuable as a standard interview, however they also found that a combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced an overall better recall. This is a strength and weakness. Strength as it shows that even if a CI isn't fully carried out, it can have an increased accuracy which increases it's credibility amongst people who use it.
- 100Explain increase in inaccurate information.Kohnken found an 81% increase of correct info but also a 61% increase in incorrect information when comparing CI to a standard interview which could be used to argue that the CI isn't as useful.
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