Flashcards
Problem Solving
Flashcards do conjunto (16)
- 1PROBLEMS AND THEIR TYPESA problem can be defined as a perceived gap between the existing state and the desired state, or a deviation from a norm, standard, or status quo.
There are two types of problems: well defined or structured problems (consists of a set of rules and guidelines) and ill-defined or unstructured problems (no specific goal or steps). - 2PROBLEM-SOLVING DEFINEDProblem-solving refers to the process of finding solutions to problems encountered in life. Solutions to these problems are usually are goal-oriented and situation or context-specific. It starts with problem finding and problem shaping leading to the generation of possible solutions and finally, evaluating and implementing them.
- 3THE PROBLEM-SOLVING CYCLEThe problem-solving cycle is an approach to problem-solving that includes clearly defined steps that allow organizations, including schools, to implement a consistent approach to problem-solving. It includes seven steps:
-Problem Identification
-Problem Definition
-Strategy Formulation
-Organization of Information
-Allocation of Resources
-Monitoring
-Evaluation
- 4PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIESThe way to solve a problem depends greatly on the problem itself. Hence, one can classify general methods of problem-solving into the following types:
-Generate and Test Technique
-Means-Ends Analysis
-Working Backward
-Backtracking
-Reasoning by Analogy - 5GENERATE AND TEST TECHNIQUEThis is a form of problem-solving heuristic that involves generating alternative courses of action, often in a random fashion, and then testing them to determine for each course whether it will solve the problem or not. It is mostly useful when there aren't a lot of possibilities to keep track of.
- 6MEANS-ENDS ANALYSISThis technique of problem-solving involves comparing the goal with the starting point and then thinking of possible ways of overcoming the gap between both the ends by choosing the best option available.
Moreover, every selected option may have certain prerequisite conditions and in case these conditions aren't met, then a subgoal is created to help the problem solver break down the process into manageable steps that allows a full solution to be contstructed.
- 7WORKING BACKWARDSThis general problem-solving technique requires the user to analyze the goal to determine the last step needed to achieve it, then the next-to-last step, and so on. It is most effective when the backward path is unique making the process more efficient than working forward.
- 8BACKTRACKINGIn solving a problem, you often need to make certain provisional assumptions and this technique allows the user to have some way to keep track of when and which assumptions were made so that one can back up to certain points of choice and start over. Thus, when faced with a dead-end, one can back up to the choice point and make a different assumption to reach a solution.
- 9REASONING BY ANALOGYDerived from the solutions offered to the "tumor problem" (Duncker, 1945), this technique proposes that solving a problem isn't merely a process of trial and error, rather it involves a deep understanding of the elements of the problems and their relationships. Thus, to find a solution, the solver must grasp the "functional value of the solution" and then arrange the specific details to finally arrive at a solution.
Gick and Holyoak (1980) referred to this process as the induction of abstract schema.
- 10BLOCKS TO PROBLEM-SOLVINGThere are many common mental constructs that impede our ability to correctly solve problems in the most efficient manner possible.
Some blocks are:
-Mental set or functional fixedness
-Incomplete or incorrect representation
-Lack of problem-specific knowledge or Expertise - 11MENTAL SET OR FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESSA mental set is an unconscious tendency to approach a problem in a particular way. Mental sets are shaped by our past experiences and habits.
For example, if the last time your computer froze you restarted it and it worked, that might be the only solution you can think of the next time it freezes.
Another example, the water jar problem
Functional fixedness is a special type of mental set that occurs when the intended purpose of an object hinders a person’s ability to see its potential other uses.
For example, say you need to open a can of broth but you only have a hammer. You might not realize that you could use the pointy, two-pronged end of the hammer to puncture the top of the can since you are so accustomed to using the hammer as simply a pounding tool.
- 12INCOMPLETE OR INCORRECT REPRESENTATIONA related difficulty in problem-solving due to the initial interpretation of the problem i.e., misunderstanding the problem statement, focusing on wrong information, or solver is at disadvantage.
For example, checkerboard problem, number game,etc
- 13LACK OF PROBLEM SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE OR EXPERTISEExperts and novices approach most such problems differently.
Familiarity with a domain of knowledge seems to change the way one solves problems within that frame of reference.
Experts and novices differ in their perceptual abilities, with experts able to "pick up on" more perceptual information than a novice would.
Example: chess, Xray, etc
- 14THE PROBLEM SPACE HYPOTHESISThe problem space hypothesis is that every possible state of affairs within a problem corresponds to a node in a mental graph. Each node corresponds to a certain state of affairs at some point during the problem-solving process.
Example: Tower of Hanoi problem
The mental move is a sequence of moves from one node to another.
Any sequence of moves beginning at the initial state and ending at the final goal state constitutes a path through problem space.
- 152 WAYS TO SEARCH THROUGH PROBLEM SPACE1) Depth-first search: Goes as far down a graph as it can to search for a goal state before backing up to examine alternatives.
2) Breadth-first search: Examining all nodes at a given level to search for a goal state before delving into the graph. - 16Expert SystemsIt is a computer program designed to model the judgments of one or more human experts in a particular field.
Expert systems contain a knowledge base, which stores facts relevant within that field.
They also contain a set of inference rules., a search engine that the program uses to search the knowledge base using the inference rules, and some interface, or means of interacting with a human user who has a question or problem for which he/she is consulting the expert system.
Informações
- Descrição
- Psychology Flashcards on Problem-solving
- Criado por
- Dhwani Gala
- Visualizações
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- Histórico
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- Criado por Anieta Dixon · 18 mai 2020
- Copiado por Dhwani Gala · 19 mai 2020
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