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- 1Attachment and later relationships.
- 2Internal Working Model - Bowlby suggested that a child's first relationship with their primary caregiver acts as a template for future relationships - Quality of child's first attachment is crucial because this template will affect the nature of their future relationships- A child whose first experience is of a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver will tend to assume that this is how relationships are meant to be
- A child with bad experiences of their first attachment will bring these bad experiences into later relationships. They may struggle to form relationships - 3Relationships in later childhood - Attachment type is associated with the quality of peer relationships in childhood - Securely attached infants tend to go on to form the best quality childhood friendships - Insecurely attached children later have friendship difficulties- Wilson & Smith assessed attachment type and bullying involvement using questionnaires in 196 children aged 7-11from London
- Secure children were very unlikely to be involved in bullying
- Insecure avoidant children were the most likely to be victims
- Insecure resistant were likely to be bullies - 4Relationships in adulthood with romantic partners - McCarthy studied 40 adult women who had been assessed as infants - Those assessed as securely attached had the best adult friendships and romantic relationships- Those assessed as insecure resistant had particular problems maintaining friendships
- Insecure avoidant struggled with intimacy in romantic relationships - 5- Hazan & Shaver analysed 620 replies to a love quiz posted in an American local newspaper - Responders were 14-82 - Quiz had 3 sections; current/most important relationship, general love experiences, attachment type by multiple choice- 50% of responders were securely attached
- 25% insecure avoidant
-19% insecure resistant
- Avoidant responders tended to reveal jealousy and fear of intimacy
- Findings suggest patterns of attachment behaviour are reflected in romantic relationships - 6Relationships in adulthood as a parent - People tend to base their parenting style on their internal working model so attachment type tends to be passed down - Bailey et al considered attachments of 99 mothers to their babies and to their own mothers- The majority of women had the same attachment classification both to their babies and their own mothers
- 7Evaluation.
- 8Evidence on continuity of attachment type is mixed - Internal working models predict continuity between the security of attachment and later relationships - Evidence for this is mixed - Not all studies support internal working models- Zimmerman assessed infant attachment type and adolescent attachment to parents
- There was very little relationship between quality of infant and adolescent attachment
- This is a problem because it is not what we would expect if internal working models were important in development - 9Most studies have issues of validity - Most studies do not make use of the Strange Situation but assess infant-parent attachment by interview or questionnaire years after infancy - This creates validity problems - Assessment relies on self-report techniques- Validity of self-report is limited because they depend on honesty and a realistic view of their own relationships
- Looking hack in adulthood to a primary attachment figure lacks validity because it relies on accurate recollections - 10Association does not mean causality - There are alternative explanations for the continuity that often exists between infant and later relationships - A third environmental factor such as parenting style might have been a direct effect on both attachment and ability to form relationships- The child's temperament may influence both infant attachment and the quality of later relationships
- This is a limitation because it is counter to Bowlby's view that the internal working model caused these later outcomes - 11Romanian Orphan Studies: Effects of Institutionalisation.
- 12Romanian Orphan Studies - A tragic opportunity to look at the effects of institutional care and the consequent institutionalisation arose in Romania in the 1990's - Former President required Romanian women to have 5 children and many families could not afford this- Children ended up in huge orphanages in very poor conditions
- After the 1989 revolution many of the children were adopted, some by British parents - 13Rutter's English and Romanian Adoptee Study - 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain to test what extent good care could undo experiences in institutions - Physical, cognitive and emotional development was assessed at ages 4,6,11,15- 52 British children adopted served as a control group
- half the Romanian adoptees showed signs of mental retardation and majority were severely undernourished
- At 11 children showed differential rates of recovery, relating to their age of adoption - 14- Mean IQ of children adopted before 6 months was 102 compared with 86 for those adopted between 6 months - 2 years and 77 for those adopted after 2 - These differences remained at 16- There appeared to be a difference in attachment related to whether adoption took place before or after 6 months
- Children adopted after 6 months showed signs of disinhibited attachment - 15Bucharest Early Intervention Project - Zeenah at al assessed attachment in 95 children 12-31 months old who had been in institutional care most of their lives - Compared with 50 children who never lived in institutions- Attachment measured by strange situation
- Carers were asked about unusual social behaviour including clingy, attention seeking behaviour directed inappropriately at all adults - 16- 74% of control group were securely attached, only 19% of institutional group securely attached - 65% disorganised attachment - Disinhibited attachment applied to 24% of institutional group and 20% of control.
- 17Effects of Institutionalisation Disinhibited attachment - Equally friendly and affectionate towards people they know or strangers - Attention seeking, clingy, highly unusual behaviour - Explained as adaptation to living with multiple caregivers in sensitive periodEffects of Institutionalisation
Mental Retardation
- Most children showed signs when arrived in Britain
- However, adopted before 6 months caught up with control group by 4
- Damage to intellectual development as a result of institutionalisation can be recovered if adopted before 6 months - 18Evaluation.
- 19Real-life application - Improvements in the way children are cared for in institutions - Orphanages and homes now avoid large numbers of caregivers per child - Having a key worker means children can develop normal attachments, avoiding disinhibited attachment- This shows that such research has been immensely valuable in practical terms
- 20Fewer extraneous variables than other orphan studies - These studies involved children who experienced loss or trauma before institutionalised - May have experienced neglect, abuse, or bereavement- Hard to observe effects of institutionalisation in isolation because children were dealing with multiple factors which functioned as cofounding variables
- Romanian orphans - possible to study institutionalisation without these variables, meaning increased validity - 21Romanian orphanages were not typical - Possible that conditions were so bad that results cannot be applied to understanding impact of better quality institutional care- Romanian orphanages had particularly poor standards of care, especially when forming relationships with other children, and extremely low levels of intellectual stimulation
- Limitation because the unusual situational variables mean the studies may lack generalisability - 22Bowlby's Theory of Maternal Deprivation.
- 23Maternal Deprivation - Emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between child and mother - "Mother-love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health"Separation vs Deprivation
- Separation is the child not being in the presence of primary attachment figure
- Only an issue for development if child is deprived
- Brief separations are not significant for development but extended separations can lead to deprivation - 24Critical Period - First 30 months are a critical period for psychological development - If child is separated from mother in the absence of suitable substitute care and deprived of her emotional care for an extended period, psychological damage is inevitableEffect on Development
Intellectual
- Children deprived of maternal care for too long will suffer mental retardation (low IQ)
- Goldfarb found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions as opposed to fostered - 25Effect on Development Emotional - Affectionless psychopathy is an inability to experience guilt or strong emotion for others - Prevents from developing notmal relationships and associated with criminality- Affectionless psychopaths cannot appreciate the feelings of victims and so lack remorse for their actions
- 26Bowlby's 44 Thieves Study - Examined the link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation - 44 criminal teenagers accused of stealing interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy: lack of affection, lack of guilt and empathy- Families were interviewed to establish whether the 'thieves' had prolonged early separations from mothers
- Control group of non criminal but emotionally disturbed young people was set up to see how often maternal separation/deprivation occurred in children who were not thieves - 27- 14/44 thieves were described as affectionless thieves, 12/14 had experienced prolonged separation from mothers in first 2 years of life - 5 of remaining 30 had experienced separations - Of the control group, 2/44 had experienced long separations- Concluded that prolonged early separation/deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy
- 28Evaluation.
- 29Evidence may be poor - Bowlby drew on a number of sources of evidence for maternal deprivation including studies of children orphaned during WW2, those growing up in poor quality institutions, and his 44 thieves study- War-orphans were traumatised and often had poor after-care and these factors may have caused later developmental difficulties, not separation
- Children growing up from birth in poor quality institutions were deprived of many aspects of care, not just maternal - 30- The 44 thieves study had some major design flaws , most importantly bias - Bowlby carried out the assessment himself for affectionless psychopathy and the family interviews- He knew what he was hoping to find and so could have tailored his participants/ assessment questions to fit his results
- 31Counter evidence - Hilda Lewis partially replicated the 44 thieves study on a larger scale, looking at 500 young people - A history of early prolonged separation from the mother did not predict criminality or difficulty forming relationships- This is a problem for the theory of maternal deprivation because it suggests that other factors may affect the outcome of early maternal deprivation
- 32The critical period is actually more of a sensitive period - Bowlby used the term 'critical period' because he believed that prolonged separation inevitably caused damage if it took place within that period - Later research shows that damage is not inevitable- Some cases of severe deprivation have had good outcomes provided the child has some social interaction and good aftercare
- Koluchová reported the case of twin boys from Czech who were isolated from 18 months until found at 7 - 33- Subsequently they were looked after by two loving adults and appeared to recover fully - Cases like this show that the period identified by Bowlby may be a 'sensitive' one but it cannot be critical =.
- 34Cultural Variations in Attachment.
- 35Key Study: van Ijzendoorn - Study conducted to look at proportions of secure, insecure avoidant, and insecure attachments across a range of countries - Looked at the differences within the same countries also, to get an idea of variations within a culture- Located 32 studies where Strange Situation was used, were conducted in 8 countries; 15 USA
- Studies yielded results 1,990 from children
- Data for these studies were meta-analysed - 36- Wide variation between proportions of attachment types in different studies - Secure attachment was the most common, however proportion varied from 75% in Britain to 50% in China - b#
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- A level Psychology (Attachment) FlashCards sobre Sem título, criado por Helena Tovey em 22-05-2017.
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