Flashcards
case studies for every topic
Flashcards do conjunto (106)
- 1APPROACHES Pavlov (1927)classical conditioning
sample of dogs
association of food with bell - 2APPROACHES Skinner (1948)operant conditioning
the cage contained a response lever that released a food pellet when pressed - soon the rat would learn through consequence that moving meant it would receive food (+R) - 3APPROACHES Bandura (1961)learning theory
- to examine the effect of continual influence of the model
- examine of the sex of the model is influenced same-sex and opposite sex ppts - 4APPROACHES Brewer and Treyens (1981)cognitive
investigating whether people's memory for objects in a room is influenced by existing schemas about what to expect in an office - 5APPROACHES Maguire et al (2000)cognitive neuroscience
taxi drivers vs. non-taxi drivers
testing memory and spatial navigation and size of hippocampus - 6APPROACHES Little Albert case study Freud (1909)psychodynamic
little hans had a phobia of horses
showed patterns of the phallic stage (hans fascination of his 'widdler', freud noticed the horses have much larger penises than him
and the oedipus complex (resenting his father's presence) - 7APPROACHES Rogers (1959)humanistic
believed the people may hinder the process of self-actualisation
when people experience conditional (+) regard they develop conditions of worth
requirements that the individual feels that they need to be loved - 8STRESS Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1984) (the effect of stressors on the immune system)- a neutral experiment, 75 medical students, blood samples were taken measuring T and NK cell activity
- taken one month before their exams and during the examination
- also completed a questionnaire about life events (SSR'S and loneliness)
- they found these cell activity was significantly lower in 2nd sample and activity was lowest amongst those who had high levels of life events and loneliness - 9STRESS Keicolt-Glaser et al (1995)effect of stressors on the immune system
- by looking at how quickly wounds would heal, samples of 13 women (volunteer sample) caring for relatives suffering from senile dementia, a task which is associated with chronic stress
- matched ppts design of control group of 13 women
- all ppts were given a wound and assessed in terms of levels of cytokines and completed a stress scale
- they found carers took 9 more days to heal than control group, cytokine levels were lower and perceived to be more stressed - 10STRESS Williams et al (2000)stress and cardiovascular disorders
- investigated the relationship between anger and cardiovascular disorders, 13,000 ppts completed questionnaires measuring anger
- they found that 256/13,000 had experienced heart attack and those who achieved highest scores on the anger scale were 2 1/2 more likely to have a heart attack
- ppts who scared 'moderate' on the anger scale were 36% more likely to experience a coronary event than hose with lower ratings - 11STRESS Rahe et al (1970)life changes
- investigated whether scores on the SSRS correlated with onset of illness
2500 male American sailors were given the SSRS to assess life changes experienced in the previous months
the total life change unit (LCU) was recorded over the following 6 months, detailed health records are also made
each sailors LCU was correlated against their illness score
FINDINGS: there was a positive correlation + 0.118 between scores of LCU and illness - 12STRESS Kanner et al (1981)sources of stress, daily hassles
- investigated the view the daily hassel may be a better predictor of illness than life changes
- 100 ppts of 52 women and 48 men, aged 45-67, completed HSUP scale
for pervious month and next 9
also completed life event of the previous 6 months and pervious 2 yrs then again at the end of the study
ppts were also assessed of psychological well being each month
FINDINGS: significant (-) correlation between frequency of hassles and psychological well being - 13STRESS Johansson et al (1978)workplace as a source of stress causing stress related illnesses
- quasi experiment
'high risk' group - 14 swedish fishes with a control group of a 'low risk' of 10 cleaners
- urine samples measured stress hormones at work and on a rest day
- stress related illnesses and absenteeism were recorded
FINDINGS: 'fisher' overall secreted more stress hormones and also on work days
also significantly higher stress related illnesses such as headaches, and absenteeism - 14STRESS Marmot et al (1997)workplace as a source of stress: WORKLOAD
- 10,000 UK civil servants (men and women) of different grades and workloads (some with higher grades with higher workloads and some lower grades and lower world) -> stress caused for different reasons
completed a ranges of questionnaires assessing workload sense of job control and levels of social support
- 11 yrs later CHD risk was assessed as a effect of stress, FINDINGS: low job control amongst low grade workers was associated with CHD - 3x more likely - 15STRESS Villarejo et al (2012)measures of stress; Skin Conductance Response (SCR)
- used SCR to measure different types of stress of 16 adult ppts - being relaxed, a mathematical test and exposure to anxiety stimuli
FINDINGS: success rate of 76.5% - 16STRESS Friedman and Rosenman (1974)individual differences; personality
- investigate the relationship between type A personality and CHD
- 3,000+ healthy men, aged 39-59
- longitudinal study to determine whether type A,B or X
- they were asked about everyday pressures & tried to elect type A behaviours by the interviewer was in a proactive manner e.g. speaking slowly & hesitantly
-then assessed health outcomes after 8 1/2 yrs. FINDINGS: 70% of types developed CHD & over 12% had a heart attack over the course of the study - 17STRESS Morris et al (1981)Type C personality
- relationship of type c and cancer
over a 2 yrs period 75 women attending a cancer clinic
- interviewed and asked about how they expressed affection, unhappiness and crying or losing control when angry (the interviewer was not aware of the initial diagnosis of cancer)
FINDINGS: those women with breast lumps which were found to be cancerous were also found that they both experienced far less anger than those with non-cancerous lumps which found to be non-cancerous ∴ theres a link between suppression of emotions (a type c beh.) are more prone to cancer - 18STRESS Kobasa (1979)the hardy personality
- why some people who are highly stressed don't become ill, explain individuals that are immune to the effects of stress
- 800 middle ages and upper levels executives, male, from a large utility company in the US were contacted - 19SOCIAL INFLUENCE Asch (1951)if ppts would conform to majority social influcen and give incorrect answers in a situation where the correct answer was always obvious
32% conformed in the critical trials (which where the confederates gave wrong answers)
74% conformed at least once - 20SOCIAL INFLUENCE Zimbardo et al (1973)role playing of guards and prisoners in a prison
test dispositional the people themselves, or external situational factors, the environment and conditions of the prison
FINDINGS: both the prisoners and guards quickly identified with their social roles. Five of the prisoners were released from the experiment early, because of their adverse reactions to the physical and mental torment, for example, crying and extreme anxiety.
although the experiment was set for 2 weeks, it was terminated after 6 days (the conditions became inhumane)
Zimbardo concluded that people quickly conform to social roles, even when the role goes against their moral principles and that situational factors were largely responsible for the behaviour - 21SOCIAL INFLUENCE Milgram (1963)complying to the demands of an authority figure
roles of teacher and learner which the teacher (always ppts) would punish learner for incorrect answer by electric shock gradualy increasing in volts by q's
100% of ppts went up to 300 volts
65% went up 450 volts - 22SOCIAL INFLUENCE explanations for obedience Milgram (1974)the agency theory
argues that we were socialised from an early age to learn that obedience to rules necessary to keep a stability within society
- however, in order to do his the individual would have to give up free will
Milgram argued that people operate in one of two ways when faced with social situations. Individuals can act autonomously and choose their behaviour, or they can enter an agentic state, where they carry out orders of an authority figure and do not feel responsible for their actions. When a person changes from autonomous state to an agentic state, they have undergone an agentic shift e.g. Adolf Eichamann - 23SOCIAL INFLUENCE explanations for obedience types:- agentic state (milligram 1974)
- legitimacy of authority (Milgram (1963)
- situational variable affecting obedience: - proximity (Milgram 1974)
- location (Milgram)
- uniforms (Brickman 1974)
- the authoritarian personality (Adorno et al 1950) - 24SOCIAL INFLUENCE explanations of resistance to social influence- conformity: Asch (1951)
- obedience: Milgram (ppts "i didn't realism I could refuse to obey") also disobedience models could be seen as a form of conformity as they create a group for individual for follow. when the confederate participant stopped at 150 volts and one at 210 volts this dropped obedience to 10% - 25SOCIAL INFLUENCE explanations of resistance to social influence locus of controla personality identified by Rotter 1966, the extent to which people feel in control of their lives
high internal LoC: believe they can affect outcomes of situation
high external LoC: believe things turn out a certain way regardless of their actions
a high internal locus of control would be more resistant to social pressure - 26SOCIAL INFLUENCE Moscivici (1969)Minority influence
the ppts were given an eye test before the experiment. The ppts were placed in groups of six and shown 36 slides, of all varying shades of blue. The ppts had state each colour. 2/6 of ppts were confederates and in condition 1 (consistent) the two confederates said that all 36 slides were green; in the condition 2 (inconsistent) the confederates said that 24 of the slides were green and 12 were blue.
FINDINGS: condition 1, 8.2% conformed and condition 2, 1.25% conformed
- population validity and ecological validity (lab) - 27SOCIAL INFLUENCE Nemeth (1986) minority influenceresearch into the effect of flexibility
groups of 3 ppts and confederate who had decided how much compensation to pay the victim of ski-lift accident. when arguing for a low amount and not being open minded to the others opinion, he had no effect on the majority
however, when he compromised a little, offering a slightly higher amount, the majority changed their opinion
∴ minority needs to flexible in order to influence majority - 28GENDER Seavey et al (1975) - Baby X experimentresearch told ppts that a 3 month old baby in a yellow jumpsuit (neutral clothing) was either a boy, girl or did not reveal the gender. they were left to play with the baby in the room, where stereotypical toys (a boy - a ball, girl - doll, and a plastic ring for neutral) were left and gender neutral toys.
both female and male participants gave the baby, if believed tone a girl, the matching stereotypical toy, and a boy the gender neutral
if they did not know the baby's gender then then male ppts assessed the baby based on their strength and female handled the baby more - 29GENDER Bem Sex Role Inventory BSRIBem 1977 developed the BSRI to measure androgyny, it was developed by asking 100 american undergraduates which personality traits they thought were desirable for men and women w/ 20 male, 20 female and 20 neutral characteristic
the inventory is a self-report measure, each characteristic is measure by 7-point likert scale. numerical scores were added up by each category and calculated their overall type - 30GENDER Burhardt snd Serbin (1982)whether androgyny was associated with positive mental health and psychiatric populations.
106 female and 84 male undergraduates and 48 female and 48 male psychiatric inpatients
all ppts were asked to do the BSRI and minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (which measures assesses personality traits and psychopathology)
FINDINGS: androgynous females were scored significantly low on depression and social introverts than feminine females. Androgynous males in the college sample scored lower on social introversion than feminine males, and scoring lower on depression ∴ androgyny correlates with good mental health - 31whether androgyny was associated with positive mental health and psychiatric populations.Flaherty and Dusek (1980) - androgynous individuals have highest self esteem
also, culture and time could ∴ lower ecological validity, with 100 AMERICAS undergraduate ppts - what traits were desirable for them
Hoffman and Borders (2001) asked 400 undergraduates to rate - 32GENDER Reiner and Gearhart (2004)a sample of 14 children born with cloacal exstrophy, a severe birth defect, to which they were reassigned female at birth
follow up study between the ages 5 and 12 showed that 8/14 reassigned identified themselves as boys
all ppts had at least moderately male interest and attitudes - 33GENDER The case of David Reimerhis biological sex was male, a 22 months old, he was raised as a girl due to a failed circumcised and Dr money involved in the case decided it was best to raise David as a female and be surgically castrated, dispite being raised as a girl and receiving female hormone treatment, he never truly identify himself as female, he wasn’t happy being indentured as female and didn’t play with girls and their toys, struggled to form relationships
and at 13 reverted to his true sex - male naming himself David. - 34GENDER Klinefelter's syndrome (Atypical sex patterns)born with an extra X chromosome
affects males in which they produce an insufficient amount of testosterone resulting in male sexual characteristics not developing fully
develop breast tissue
can cause psychology upset, poor language skills, noticeably passive temperament - 35GENDER DesLisi et al (2005) (Atypical sex patterns)compared 11 KS ppts to 11 non-KS ppts each having a psychiatric interview, cognitive test and an MRI scan
FINDINGS: KS ppts had some form of psychiatric disturbance and generally had smaller frontal lobes and superior temporal gyrus brain areas which might explain the language deficits
this suggests a biological basis to the problems experienced - 36GENDER Stocholm et al (2012) (Atypical sex patterns)investigated criminal patterns in 1,005 Danish men with KS
found some relationship with criminality (particularly arson and sexual abuse) compared to non-KS control
but when socioeconomic was taken into account it was found that KS ppts were lower which the likely effects would them being turned to criminality - 37GENDER Turner’s syndrome (Atypical sex patterns)Affect females, only one X chromosome or partial second X
physical development of short stature, down-slanting eyes and a short webbed like neck
broad chest, organ abnormalities (heart and kidneys), not developing breast during puberty and being infertile - 38GENDER Quigley et al (2014) (Atypical sex patterns)gave 123 girls with TS either oestrogen supplements or a placebo from ages 5-12
there was no difference in physical development from ages of 5 and 8 1/2 between the two groups but between 8 1/2 and 12 yrs, girls with the oestrogen supplements had started to develop greater and earlier breast tissue, though no other differences in development were noted. - 39GENDER Young’s (1966) Testosteronegave male hormones to female mice and female hormones to male mice
this caused an irreversible change in usual gender related behaviours e.g. during mating, female mice would act like male mice
supports that testosterone are key in development of gender - 40GENDER Van Leengoed et al (1987)injected an antagonist of oxytocin into female rats shortly after birth to inhibit oxytocin production
mothers treated in this way showed a delay in maternal behaviours:
such as picking up and grooming their offspring
when the antagonist wore off, normal maternal behaviour was seen - 41GENDER Kohlberg's theory of gender constancy 19661.GENDER LABELLING. Aged 2-3 infants label themselves and others as a boy or girl based on outward appearances such as hairstyle or dress. Children will tend to change gender labels as appearances change: i.e. a boy with long hair might be labelled a girl.
2.GENDER STABILITY. Around 4 years children recognise that gender is stable over time – boys grow into men, etc. but they do not recognise that gender is consistent across situations – believing, for example, that males might change into females if they engage in female activities
3.GENDER CONSISTENCY. Around the age of 6 children come to realise that gender is consistent across situations: e.g. that just because a boy may dress or play like a girl they remain a boy. Gender is now a fixed rather than a fluid category in the child’s mind. - 42GENDER Kohlberg's theory of gender constancy 1966 research support: Kohlberg (1966)tested his theory by providing children with picture and asking if gender would alter with changes to characteristics such as hair and clothes
he found that only after 5 yrs old children recognised the constancy of gender, ∴supporting his idea - 43GENDER Slaby and Frey (1975)assessed the children's ability to distinguish between male and female
showed picture of young boys and girls to children and asked "which one are you?" ‘were you a girl or a boy when you were a baby?’ and ‘when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy?’
infants only started to give correct answers once they had recognised that gender was stable over time: e.g. stage 2 – gender stability. - 44GENDER Martin (1991)Ingroup and Outgroup schema
- suggested that once children understand that they are one gender and not the other they begin to develop these schemas
- in-group: refers to the group in which they identify with, once identified this leads them to (+) evaluate their gender and (-) evaluate the outgroup
- outgroup: do not identify with, ∴ avoid these behaviours
- assimilated: new experiences are fitted into existing schemas - 45GENDER Developmental changes in children's gender schema- Preschoolers: learn about what activities and behaviour go with each gender by SLT. learn gender scripts
- 4-6 yrs: learn subtle and complex sets of association w/ their gender, how they talk, play, what they do and do not like
- 5-6 yrs: when gender constancy develops, children's understanding of what people what would like them to do
- 8-10 yrs: children start to develop schema of the opposite gender that matches to their own in-group schema
- Late childhood and early adolescents: learns that these gender 'rules' are just social conventions and then ∴ become more flexible - 46GENDER Bradbard et al (1986) Gender schemachildren appear to pay greater attention to in-group rather than outgroup schemas
- the child's gender schema affects to whats being paid attention to
∴ 1 week later the children remembered mored detail to their in-group items
demonstrating that when items don't fit/seem relevant their in-group schema, it is less likely to be remembered - 47GENDER Martin and Halverson (1983) Gender schemafound that when children were asked to recall pictures of people, children under 6 recalled more of the gender consistent 1 (e.g. male firefighter and female nurse than female firefighter and male nurse)
suggests that information that fit with the gender schema is remembered better and something that doesn't fit is ignored. this supports GST as it proposes that children are concerned with what matches their schema and ∴ ignore behaviour and info that is inconsistent - 48Martin and Halverson (1983) Gender schema ------->gender schema may distort information, affecting memory recall
when recalling the images, they often inconsistent, e.g. a boy holding a doll, they insisted that it was a girl holding a doll
this is line with GST as memory may distort information that is not consistent with what is already known that fits into that schema
the theory explains why children are frequently sexist, even when parents try to prevent this, the children are actively seeking gender appropriate information - 49GENDER Freud (1905)the oedipus complex,
1. boys desire their mother, at the age of 3-4 the boy becomes aware of their sexuality and wants their mother's full attention.
2. sees their father as a rival for their mothers love - as a result wish their father was dead, this creates a fear of castration, such fears are repressed
3. the complex is eventually resolved as the boy identifies with their father that the boy internalises his father's gender identity and takes this as his own gender identity - leading to masculine behaviour - 50GENDER Carl Jung (1913)the electra complex
1. the young girl is initially attracted to her mother but this ends when the girl discovers that her mother doesn't have a penis, believing the she was castrated and so result in having penis envy
2. the girls sexual desired are transferred to her father
3. the complex is resolved when the girl converts her penis envy to which to have a baby, which reduces the anger towards to mother, the girl identifies with her mother allowing her to take on he mother's qualities and internalises her female identity - 51GENDER Freud (1909)Little Hans
- 52GENDER Snortum et al (1969)46 males who had been exempted from military forces due to homosexuality had close bonds w/ their mother's who were also considered controlling.
they also frequently had distant and detached father than a comparable sample of heterosexual men. Supports Oedipus complex bc of the lack of identification w/ their fathers may have resulted in their sexuality - 53GENDER Wiszewska et al (2007)asked female ppts to rate the attractiveness of picture of men
they were also asked to assess the quality of the relationship with their father
the researchers then compared the similarity between the men chosen and the ppts father
they found that ppts who reported a close relationship with their father, were more likely to be attracted to men who resembled their fathers - 54GENDER Bandura (1991)social learning theory as applied to gender devlelopment
4 key meditational processes: attention (an individual must pay attention to the model’s behaviour (e.g. boys must pay attention to male’s behavior and girls must pay attention to female’s behaviour); retention (individuals must code and store the observed gender-appropriate behaviour in long-term memory); reproduction (individuals must be capable of imitating the gender-appropriate behaviour); and motivation (individuals must have good reason for reproducing the gender-appropriate behaviour). - 55GENDER Fagot and Leinbach (1995)SLT: parent's influence
found that 4 yours displayed more gender stereotyped role in ‘traditional’ families where the father worked and the mother cared for the children at home. compared to ‘alternative’ families where parents had childcare
this suggests that parents do act as role model for their children, and how much they influence their view of gender - 56GENDER Block’s (1979)SLT: parent's influence
boys are (+) reinforced more for imitating behaviour reflecting masculine characteristics such as independence, self reliance and emotional control. girls are reinforced more fore dependance, nurturance, empathy and emotional expression
this suggest that SLT can explain why males and females acquire different gender roles - 57GENDER Perry and Bussey (1979)SLT: the influence of peers
showed film clips to children of 8-9 years old. on the film, they showed girls and boys selecting an apple or pear (both gender neutral). later on they asked the ppts to choose wither an apple or pear
the children selected selected the fruit that they saw their same sex model select - 58GENDER Huston and Wright (1998)The influence of media on gender roles
Research has found that ‘heavy’ viewers of television hold stronger stereotypes beliefs that ‘lighter’ viewer (Gunter (1986)
Huston and Wright (1998)
found that US TV programmes, the male character generally outnumber the female characters, especially in children’s TV. men are often in dominant roles with higher status, whereas women have inferior roles and are less able to deal with problems
this supports how television can have strong stereotyped roles and how they are present in the media and may contribute to our own gender stereotypes and affect out behaviour - 59GENDER The William’s Motel/Multitel Experiment (1998)studies 3 canadian towns, Notel: surrounded by mountains, which has no TV signal access at all.
Unitel: has one Canadian TV channel
Multitel: has access to a number of US channels
The behaviour and attitudes was assessed of the children using questionnaire about stereotyped gender roles
they found that children in Notel and Unitel had much weaker sex-typed views compared to children in Multitel. This especially true for girls
the children were reassessed after 2 years where TV had been introduced to Notel, they found the children views had significantly become more sex-typed - 60GENDER Margaret Mead (1935)the influence of culture on gender roles
Researched in Papa New Guinea researching diffrent tribes and their gender roles
Arapesh Tribe: the men and women where gentle responsive and cooperative
Mundugumor tribe: men and women were more aggressive, violent, power hungry
Tchambuli tribe: exhibited gender difference where women were more dominant, impersonal and managerial whereas the men were more emotionally dependant
this suggest that culture doe play a part, as in most other cultures are the opposite - 61GENDER Margaret Mead (1935) further evaluationher data are demo stared cultural relativism (the principle that an individuals group beliefs and activities must be considered in terms of individuals) , the differences between males and females are determined by social cues. cultural relativism; she decided that although overall, as she saw repetition in these tribes, these behaviours are innate such as men showing aggression and being higher in status and are therefore universal (these behaviours are shown across the world) , but only to a degree as Tchambuli tribe showed that these behaviours are relative and social cues are also highly influential
However Meand’s research had been criticised as they have suggested that the tribes provided her with the evidence that she needed
Errington and Gwent’s (1989) - did not find the reversal role of the Tchambuli tribe therefore suggesting that the Tribe showed demand characteristics for Mead’s research - 62GENDER Williams and Best (1990)Cultural similarities in Gender Stereotypes
2800 students in 30 different countries using a 300 word checklist, they were asked to identify which characteristic best suited male and females
FINDINGS: found a broad consensus across all cultures
men were seen as more dominant, aggressive and emotionless
women were seen as nurturant, deferent and interested in affiliation
Williams and Best concluded that there are universal gender stereotypes about male and female characters, regardless of culture - 63GENDER Williams and Best (1990)∴ if these characteristics are universal, they just by biological and innate and support an evolutionary approach and not a cultural
may have been a forced choice as they could only say female or male, there was a ‘neutral’ choice, however, there was a ‘cannot say’, this could mean that the division between female and male characteristic are exaggerated
also low population validity, also student often share common attribute, with similar class and attitudes - 64GENDER Genetic explanation of GID- gene variant of androgen receptor - influences the action of testosterone, which masculinisation of the brain
- biochemical: significant amounts of male hormone secreted during third month of pregnancy and and 2-12 week after birth. Hormone levels may have been affected by genetic conditions such as Androgen Insensitivity syndrome i.e. a disorder in the mother's endocrine system or maternal stress - 65GENDER Genetic explanation of GID research Hare et al (2006) Gladue (1985)+ Hare looked at the DNA 112 M+F transgender people and found that they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene than a 'normal' sample (cisgender control group)
- Gladue found that there were few, if any differences of hormonal levels between gender dysphoric 'men' than heterosexual and homosexual men - similar results have been found for women ∴ social explanation of GD - 66GENDER Brain-sex theory as an explanation of GIDThe BSTc in the thalamus has been implicated, the BTSc is 2x as large in heterosexual male compared to a heterosexual female, containing 2x n#
+ Zhou et al (1995) found the number of neurones in the BSTc of MtF transgenders was similar to that found in a female brain and vis versa FtM ∴ may not be the cause but the effect
- Chung et al (2002) noted the difference between M and female BSTc only develops in adulthood, yet many display GD from an early age - 67GENDER Learning theory as an explanation of GIDOC - individuals who are reinforced fro exhibiting cross-gender behaviour
AND SLT learned by observation and imitation of individuals modelling cross-gender behaviour
+ Rekers (1995) reported that with 70 transgender boys, there was evidence of social factors rather than biological factors, there was a common lack of stereotypical male role model
- Bennet (2006) - 68GENDER Childhood trauma/upbringing as an explanation for GIDsuggested GID is linked to mental illness caused by childhood trauma
+ Coates et al (1991) a case study of a GID boy and proposed that his condition was a defensive reaction to his mother’s depression following an abortion. suggested developed cross-gender fantasies resolving the anxiety he experienced.
- Cole et al (1997) studies 435 GD ppts and found that their psychiatric conditions was not greater than in the 'normal' sample - 69ATTATCHMENT Meltzoff and Moore (1977)found that infants as young as 2 or 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures
using an adult model who displayed 1 of 3 fail expression or hand movements. a dummy was placed in the infants mouth during the initial display to prevent any response
when the dummy was removed they found an accusation between the facial and hand movements of the adult model - 70ATTACHMENT Klaus and Kennell’s (1976)compared mums who had extended physical contact with their babies lasting several hours a day with mums who only hd contact with their babies during feeding in the three days of birth
one month later the mums with the great physical contact and these effects were noticeable a year later ∴ suggest that greater physical contact with their babies and closer and stronger bond formation - 71ATTACHMENT Stages of attachment Schaffer and Emerson(1996)studied 60 babies at monthly intervals for the first 18 months of life. The babies were visited monthly for approximately one year, their interactions with their carers were observed, and carers were interviewed. questions such as whom infants smiled at who they respond to, who caused distress?
attachment was measured by separation protest → assessed by several everyday situations: the infant being left alone in a room, alone with others, left alone in the pram outside the house or shops, being put down after being held and being passed around while in a pram, cot
stranger anxiety was assessed by the researcher approaches the infant to see if distress is caused - 72Schaffer and Emerson(1996) FINDINGSFINDINGS: infants began to show separation anxiety 6-8 months with their attachment figure and stranger anxiety one month after
strongly attached infants had mother who responded to their needs quickly and gave more opportunities for interaction, whereas infant with weaker attachment had mother who responded to their needs less quickly and interacted with them less frequently
most infants went onto having multiple attachments after 18 months with 87% had at least 2 attachments
39% of prime attachments was not the prime carer
∴ there is pattern of attachments, which suggests that it is biologically controlled
attachments are easily made when the carer who displays sensitivity responsiveness than those who spends the most time with them - 73ATTACHMENT Lorenz 1935the mechanism of imprinting where youngster follow and form an attachment on the first moving large object
split clutch with the natural mother being the first moving object and the other, hatched in an incubator with Lorenz being the first moving object, following behaviour recorded.
marked with groups nd placed them under a box, measured which they went to when the box was removed
when he reomved the box, the naturally hatched gosling went straight to their mother and the incubator went straight to lorenz showing no bond with heir natural mother, these showed to be irreversible bonds
imprinting only occurred for a brief moment, of 4-24hrs of hatching, goslings that imprinted with humans also tried to mate with humans - 74ATTACHMENT Guiton (1966)demonstrated that chick who were exposed to a yellow rubber glove during feeding became imprinted on the gloves
supports Lorenz
→ Guiton also found that the chickens tried to mate with the rubber glove ∴ that early imprinting is linked to reproductive behaviour
HOWEVER he did find that this can be reversed after spending spending more time with their own species - 75ATTATCHMENT Harlow (1959)test learning theory by comparing attachment behaviour in baby monkeys
two types of surrogate mothers -
- given a wire surrogate mother producing milk
- towelling mother producing no milk
16 baby monkeys in 4 conditions: wire mother w/ milk and towelling mother w/ milk. wire mother producing no milk and towelling mother producing milk. wire mother w/ milk.towelling mother w/ milk.
tested the amount of time spent with each mother, as well as feeding, was recorded. frightened with a loud noise and tested witch mother they went to when experiencing stress
a larger cage to test degree of exploration - 76ATTACHMENT Harlow (1959) FINDINGSFINDINGS: monkey’s preferred towelling mother, regardless of milk - even stretched over to wire monkey for milk and went back to towelling mother for milk
monkey’s who had wire mother has diarrhoea - high levels of stress
if the towelling mother was available, the baby monkey’s turned to for comfort when frightened
monkey’s with towelling mother, had a higher degree of exploration - 77ATTACHMENT learning theory(Lorenz, if the reproductive behaviour can be reversed then then attachment can be learned)
CC: the food is associated with the caregiver and ∴ associates them with pleasure
OC: infant feels discomfort, drive to reduce discomfort, when fed the discomfort is gone
research against → harlow, showed that attachment is based of comfort - 78ATTATCHMENT Bowlby (1969)Evolutionary perspective
1. forming attachment is innate as it enhances their chance of survival. also adults are thought to be biologically programmed to attach to their infants
2. infants elect caregiving specific behaviours to promote attachment
3. Monotropy
4. Internal Working Model
5. the continuity hypothesis
6. if attachment is innate then there is a critical period of development (Lorenz) - 79ATTCHMENT Ainsworth and Bell (1970)Ainsworth 'Strange Situation'
Individual differences in attachment
tested: stranger anxiety, separation protest, secure base concept, reunion behaviour - 80ATTACHMENT Van ljzendoorn and Kroonberg (1988)cross-cultural variation in attachment
conducted a meta-analysis of 32 studies that used the strange situation
FINDINGS: intercultural differences were small, secure attachment was the most common, insecure avoidant the next except Japan and Israel (collectivist countries)
Average findings were consistent with Ainsworth’s original research - Secure 65% - Avoidant 21% - Resistant 14% - 81ATTACHMENT Takahashi (1990)Takahashi (1990) replicated the Strange Situation with 60 middle class Japanese infants & mothers using the same standardised procedure and behavioural categories. Takahashi’s observation revealed distinct cultural differences in how the infants responded to the 8 stages of the procedure. The findings were as follows:
0% insecure-avoidant. Infants became severely distressed in the “infant alone step”; this situation was quite unnatural and broke cultural norms for the infants
32% insecure-resistant
68% secure
90% of infant-alone steps had to be stopped due to excessive infant anxiety. - 82ATTACHMENT Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation Bowlby's (1944) 44 Junivile ThievesBowlby interviewed 88 children, ages 5-16, and their families, he compared the backgrounds of 44 juvenile thieves with the background of 44 other non-delinquent children; all were emotionally maladjusted in some way
16/44 theives were identified as 'affection-less psychopaths'
FINDINGS: 86% of the 'affection-less psychopaths' thrives had experienced a prolonged separations from their mother's, while only 2/44 non-thieves had experienced such separation. Therefore these findings support the MDH, as there appears to be a link between disruption to attachments in the first 5 years and later maladjustment.
Bowlby’s subsequent research reported that 60 children who had spent time apart from their mothers due to tuberculosis prior to the age of 4, demonstrated lower achievement in school. - 83ATTACHMENT Rutter at al (1998) (2001) (2007)111 Romanian orphans assessed for height, head circumference and cognitive functioning and again at 4
a control group of 52 British adopted children were also assessed
3 conditions: adopted before the age of 6 months, between 6 month and 2 years, after two years
FINDINGS: 50% of Romanian orphans were abnormal in cognitive functioning and most were underweight- the control group did not have these deficits.
At 4 yrs, Romanian orphans showed great improvements, physically and cognitive with adopted at 6 month were doing as well as the British control group - 84ATTACHMENT Hazan and Shaver (1987) 'The love quiz'respondents from a newspaper were asked which of three descriptions best applied to their inner feelings about romantic relationships =. These descriptions related to secure attachments, insecure-avoidant attachments, and insecure resistant attachment
ppts also completed a checklist describing childhood relationships with parents relating to the same attachment types.
FINDINGS: 56% were classified as secure, 25% avoidant and 19% resistant
and + correlation between attachment type and love relationships
securely attached described that relationships as happy, friendly, and trusting, they emphasise being able to accept and support their partner despite faults,
These relationships were enduring 10 years whereas 5-6 years for resistant and avoidant
insecure avoidant felt that they didn’t need love partners to be happy - this could support the internal working model as in infancy they learned not to expect such in relationships - 85ATTACHMENT Hodges and Tizard (1989)65 children who were placed in institution when they were less than 4 months
some stayed in the institiution for 16yrs, some were adopted and some went back to their natural homes
they were assessed at the ages of 4, 8 and 16
FINDINGS: children who remained in the institution had no strong attachment and had problems relating to peers, adopted children formed stronger attachments with their adoptive families, but had problems forming relationships outside their families
the restored children had weak attachments and poor relationships and behavioural problems. - 86PSYCHOPHATHOLOGY Rosenhan and Seligman (1989)failure to function adequately
the four characteristics
1. Personal distress
2. Observer discomfort
3. Unpredictability
4. Irrationally - 87PSYCHOPHATHOLOGY Jahoda (1958)Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
- Personal autonomy
- Accurate perception of reality
- Adapting to and mastering the environment
- Resistance to stress
- Self-actualisation of one's potential
- Positive attitude towards the self - 88PSYCHOPHATHOLOGY Orval Hobart Mower (1947)how phobias are learned
CC and OC → explain the initiation and maintenance of a phobia
JOHN WATSON → LITTLE ALBERT (1924)
White rat and metal clang of hammer on a pole - 89PSYCHOPHATHOLOGY Beck (1987)Beck's Negative Triad
believed people become more depressed bc the world is seen negatively through (-) schemas. These dominate thinking. Beck proposed that (-) schemas develop during childhood and adolescence when authority figures (e.g. parents) place unrealistic demands on an individual and are highly critical of them ∴ the schema leads them to expect to fail.
- (-) views of world, future and oneself - 90PSYCHOPHATHOLOGY Ellis (1962) Mental disorders such as depression are caused by irrational beliefs ABCbelieved that irrational thinking could lead to psychological disturbance, mainly due to the fact that individuals fall into a cycle of irrational thinking, which prevents the individual from behaving in an adaptive way.
A - activating event (a distressing event e.g. breakup)
B - Beliefs (irrational thoughts)
C - consequences (undesirable emotions)
Ellis believes that it is not the activating event (A) that causes depression (C), but rather that a person interpret these events unrealistically and therefore has an irrational belief system (B) that helps cause the consequences (C) of depressive behaviour. - 91PSYCHOPHATHOLOGY Ellis, 1962 CBTDifferent types of CBT - REBT
Ellis believed that it’s the beliefs, rather than the activating events, that lead to self-defeating consequences. REBT focuses on encouraging patients to challenge or dispute any self-defeating beliefs, replacing them with effective, rational beliefs:
Logical disputing: Self-defeating beliefs do not follow logically from the information available e.g. ‘Does thinking in this way make sense?’
Empirical disputing: Self-defeating beliefs may not be consistent with reality e.g. ‘Where is the proof that this belief is accurate?’
Pragmatic disputing: Emphasises the lack of usefulness of self-defeating beliefs e.g. ‘How is this belief likely to help me?’
Beck’s cognitive therapy – mainly used to treat people with depression, encouraging clients to monitor situations where they make negative assumptions.
Meichenbaum’s Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT) – a type of CBT used to manage stress. - 92PSYCHOPHATHOLOGY Grootheest et al (2005)the biological approach to explaining OCD
to see id there's any indication of the extent to which OCD is inherited
to see if there's any difference in the extent to which OCD is inherited between children and adults - 93MEMORY Baddeley and Hitch (1974)the working memory model -
EXPLAINS SHORT TERM MEMORY
they felt that memory was just not one store but several store.
- the central executive
- the visuo - spatial sketchpad
- episodic executive - 94MEMORY Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)the multi-store model of memory
the first explanation of memory, explains how information flows through a series of storage systems:
the sensory register, short term memory and long term memory - 95MEMORY Baddeley (1966)the coding of both the STM and LTM
to assess whether the coding of the STM and the LTM is mainly acoustic or semantic
75ppts were divided int 4 groups and presented w/ one of four word list consisting of 10 words and were repeated 4 x. List A were acoustically similar, B - acoustically dissimilar, C semantically similar, and D semantically dissimilar
FINDINGS: STM: list A ppts performed the worst, also mixing up words, recall of other list was comparatively good 60-80%. LTM: list C performed the worst w/ recall of 55% confusing similar meaning
∴ LTM si encoded by semantic basis due to the semantic confusion and STM is acoustic due to the acoustic confusion - 96MEMORY Miller (1956)investigated the capacity of the STM
miller concluded that the span of immediate memory is approximately 7 items. Miller's maid number 7=+or- 2 items
he found compact can be insecured by chunking (grouping information into larger units that have similar meaning) - 97MEMORY Peterson and Peterson (1959)the duration of STM
to investigate how long information remains in the shirt term memory store when rehearsal is prevented
presented ppts a series of trigrams and asked to recall each. the time interval between the presentation of each trigram and recall varied, as the researchers were interested in testing whether the patricians ability to recall the trigram accuratelyy deteriorated as the time interval increased
to prevent rehearsing the trigrams the ppts were asked to count in 3s or 4s until told to stop
FINIDINGS: 80% of trigrams were recalled after a 3 second interval and 2% of trigrams were recalled after an 18 second interval - 98MEMORY Clive Wearing Case Studywas unable to lay down any new long term memory, whereas his short term memory was still functioning, after his hippocampus was destroyed by a viral infection
however, clive was still able to do complex skills such play the piano and sight read suggesting that his procedural memory was still intact which cannot be explained by the multi-store model - 99MEMORY Baddeley et al (1973)evidence for a separate visuo-spatial scratchpad and phonological loop each with a limited capacity
- ppts had to track a moving spot of light whilst either imagining the letter 'F' and classifying the angles or completing a verbal task. They compared the ppts doing 2 visual tasks, against those doing a visual and verbal
FINDINGS: ppts found it more difficult to spot the moving light whilst classifying the angle in the letter 'F', bc both tasks involved the visa-spatial scratchpad, which has a limited capacity. However, ppts who did the visual and verbal task simultaneously found it less difficult, this is because it used the VSS and PL suggesting they are separate slave systems. - 100MEMORY Tulving (1989)types of long term memory
to investigate possible differences in the processing of episodic and semantic memory task
ejected 6 ppts w/ particles of radioactive gold that he could use to track brain blood flow in a scanner. He scanned his brain whilst he thought about historical facts or his childhood experiences. FINDINGS: when he was thinking about historical facts blood flow increased at the posterior region of the cortex, whereas when he thought about childhood experiences blood flow increased at the frontal lobes of the cortex of his brain. - 101MEMORY Schmidt et al (2000)explanations for forgetting
- to assess the influence the retroactive inference upon the memory of street names learned during childhood
- names were randomly selected from a database of former students 211 responded raging from 11 to 79 years of age. they were given a map if the neighbourhood with all 48 street names replaced by numbers and asked to remember as many of them as possible
other relevant info was asked: - 102MEMORY Loftus and Palmer (1974)to investigated whether leading questions distort the accuracy of an event of an eyewitness’s immediate recall
45 ppts watched different videos of road traffic accidents and asked a series of questions about what they saw in the films, including the critical question “about how fast was the cars going when they (hit/smashed/bumped/collided/ contacted) each other?”
FINDINGS: as the intensity of the verb increased so di the estimation of speed of the cars, smashed → 40.8mph and contacted → 31.8 mph - 103MEMORY Loftus et al (1987)the effect of anxiety on accuracy of EWT
to investigate the effect of anxiety on the ppts ability to accurately identify the individual involved in the event witnessed
- ppts were exposed to 1 / 2 conditions where ppts sat in a waiting room either low discussion in a lab about equipment failure → a man emerged holding a pen w/ greased hand or a hostile exchange, sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs, then a man emerged holding a bloodied penknife. the ppts were then presented with 50 photographs and asked to identify the man
FINDINGS: condition 1 49% identified the man whereas in condition 2 33% did - 104MEMORY Yuille and Cutshall (1986)contradicts Palmer
investigated the accuracy of EWT depending on proximity to the event, the use of misleading questions and levels of anxiety experienced at the time, interviewed 13 witnesses to a real-life shooting where the thief was shot dead and the storeowner wounded.
- accurate accounts given several months later
- those in closer proximity gave more accurate accounts
- misleading q's had no effect of recall - 105MEMORY Geiselman et al (1985)proposed the cognitive interview schedule
- mental reinstatement of context
- report everything
- change narrative order
- change of perspective - 106MEMORY Geiselman (1988)improving accuracy of EWT: cognitive interview
- tested to effectiveness of the cognitive interview by comparing it against standard police interviewing techniques
- they showed violent crimes to 89 students and 48 hrs later the students were interviewed using CI or a standard police interviewing technique
- results were recorded: number of correct item recalled, number of errors, confabulated items
FINDINGS: correct items → 41.5 for CI and 29.4 for standard interview
incorrect → 7.3 for CI and 6.1 for SI and confabulated items 0.7 for CI and 0.4 SI
Informações
- Descrição
- A level psychology FlashCards sobre case studies for every topic , criado por rose prince em 05-04-2019.
- Criado por
- rose prince
- Visualizações
- 9
- Avaliação