STRESS

STRESS

1. In Everyday Life

   • Life Changes
     • Holmes & Rahe (1967) - relationship between stress and illness - major life events occur prior to physical illness
       • Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) - are life events related to physical illness?
         • Contained 43 life events (ranked in order of percieved stressfulness and gvien a numerical value, Life Change Unit (LCU)
         • Rahe et al. (1970) - 2700 Navy personnel - life events (prior 6 months) & illness score - positive correlation found
     • Evaluation
       • Positive & negative events - scale focuses on change rather than negativity and how much readjustment each change involves
         • Researchers argue that health is more likely to be affected if the change is 'undesired, unscheduled and uncontrolled'
       • Life changes and daily hassles - Lazarus (1990) major life changes = rare and minor daily hassles have greater impact on health
         • Supported - positive correlation between daily hassles/no correlation between life events and health problems
       • Individual differences
         • Life changes - different significance - sudden death, greater impact
       • Spurious relationship
         • Research has only studied correlation, can't establish cause and effect
           • Possible that other factors are responsible for health problems - E.G. levels of anxiety increase susceptibility to illness
   • Daily Hassles
     • The Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP) (Delongis et al. 1982) - considers both positive and negative events in life
     • Daily Hassles - Bouteyre et al. (2007) - relationship between daily hassles and depression
       • 41% 1st years in France shown to have depressive symptoms - positively correlated with hassle scale scores
         • Suggests transition to Uni has a high incidence of daily hassles which increase risk of developing depression
     • Daily Uplifts - (Gervais, 2005) - nurses asked to record daily hassles and uplifts for 1 month
       • Evident that hassles increased job strain and decreased performance/uplifts counteracted negative effects of hassles and improved perfomance
     • Daily hassles are considered to be a more significant source of stress than major life changes
       • Ruffin (1993) - daily hassles linked to physical and physiological problems more than negative life events
       • Flett et al (1955) - people experiencing daily hassles recieve less social/emotional support than people experiencing major life effents
         • May explain explain the greater negative impact of daily hassles on psychological wellbeing
     • Evaluation
       • The Accumulation Effect
         • Build up of minor stressors can lead to irritation and frustration - this can lead to more serious mental health disorders (anxiety/depression)
       • The Amplification Effect
         • Stress that results from major life changes makes people more vulnerable to daily hassles
           • Individual already in state of distress, additional associated minor stressors may amplify stress
             • Individuals experienced major life events - less likely to be able to cope with minor stressors
       • Methodological Problems
         • Retrospective recall
           • Attempts to recall and rate hassles experienced during previous month could raise issues
             • Attempted to overcome this by using a diary method so that hassles and uplifts can be rated on a daily basis
         • Research
           • Cause and effect cannot be established where hassles and wellbeing are concerned (data is only correlational)
             • However, suggested that hassles can potentially damage our health but other factors may also be responsible
   • Workplace Stress
     • Marmot et al. (1997) studies stress in civil servants in relation to the 'job-strain model' (High workload/Low job control)
       • High grade civil servants = High workload/ Low grade " " = Low job control
       • +7000 civil servants Q'd about workload, job control and social support and checked for signs of cardiovascular disease
         • P's assessed 5 years later, no relationship found between high workload and stress-related illness
     • Johansson et al. (1978) - swedish sawmill workers (high workload/low job control) - found higher levels of adrenaline and illness rates
     • Marmot et al. eventually discovered high grade civil servants developed fewer cardiovascular diseases than low grade civil servants
       • High grade worker's greater sense of job control and better levels of social support
     • Role Conflict - between work and family demands
       • Can lead to higher levels of absenteeism, lower levels of performance and impaired physical and mental health
       • Pomaki et al. (2007) - role conflict related to emotional exhaustion, depression and physical health problems - study of 226 hospital doctors
     • Evaluation
       • Consequences of workplace stress
         • Stress and coronary heart disease
           • Meta-analysis of 14 studies studying relationship
             • Results of 83,000 employees from Europe, the US and Japan suggested that high level job strain = 50% more likely to develop CHD
         • Workplace stress and mental health
           • Risk of developing depression increases if stress at work is combined with other problems (home/daily hassles)
           • Warr (1987) - low levels of opportunity for; control, skill use and interpersonal contact could lead to mental health problems
       • Problems with the study of workplace stress
         • Lazarus (1995) emphasised individual differences as to how people respond and cope with specific stressors
           • His transactional approach focused on impact of stressors being dependant upon person's perceived ability to cope
             • High job demands and role ambiguity = stressful to one person but not to another - makes it difficult to draw conclusions
         • Evolution of work and work stressors
           • Technology and nature of work environment make knowledge of workplace stressors outdated
   • Personality Factors and Stress
     • Personality = behaviours, attitudes and temperament that generally distinguish us from others
       • Research indicates some personality characteristics makes us more vulnerable to negative effects of stress whilst others make us more resistant
     • Friedman & Rosenman (1959) - Type A = competitiveness and acheivment striving, impatience and time urgency and hostility and aggressiveness
       • Raised blood pressure and levels of stress hormones which could both be related to CHD
       • Type B = relaxed, patient and easy-going so less likely to suffer from stress-related illness
     • Research on Type A
     • Enter text here
   • Psychological Methods of Stress Management
   • Physiological Methods of Stress Management

2. As a Bodily Response