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The Research Enterprise In Psychology

Brianna Carter Inglês

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The Scientific Approach
- Goals
  - Measurement & Description
    - Scientists commitment to observation requires that an investigation figures out a way to measure phenomenon and study 
  - Understanding & Prediction
    - A higher level goal of science is understanding. Scientists believe that understand events when they can explain the reasons for occurrence of events. Scientists also make predictions otherwise known as a "hypothesis". A hypothesis is a tenative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Variables are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study.
  - Application & Control
    - This stage is where scientists hope that the information gathered is of practical value in helping solve everyday issues. & Also once people understand a phenomena, they often have more control over it
- Steps in Investigation
  - 1. Formulate a testable hypothesis  2. Select a method of study & design the study3. Collect the data4. Analyze the data and draw conclusions 5. Report findings 
- Advantages
  - -Clarity and precision yield better communication  -intolerance of error yields more reliable data
- Research Approaches
  - Qualitative Methods : gathers information through observations and interveiws  Quantitative: data are collected through measuring things - includes facts and statistics 
Experimental Research
- Elements
  - Independent Variable (IV): condition or event manipulated by experimenter Dependent Variable (DV): aspect of behaviour thought to be affected by independent variable  Experimental Group: participants who receive special treatment  Control Group: similar subjects who do not receive treatment given to experimental group  Extraneous Variables: factors besides IV that might affect DV, hence they need to be controlled  
- Variations
  - -Can have one group of subjects serve as their own control group -can manipulate more than one independent variable in a study  -can use multiple dependent variables in a study
- Advantages/Disadvantages
  - Advantages : - Permits conclusions about cause and effect relationships  Disadvantages : - Manipulations and control often make experiments artificial  - Practical realities and ethical concerns make it impossible to conduct experiments on many issues
Descriptive/Correlation Research
- Methods
  - Naturalistic Observations
    - Careful, systematic observation, but no intervention with subjects 
  - Case Study
    - In-depth investigation of single participant, typically involving data from many sources 
  - Survey
- Advantages/Disadvantages
  - Advantages: Broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists can study ( can explore issues that could not be examined with experimental methods) Disadvantages: Cannot demonstrate that two variables are casually related 
Statistics
- Basic Descriptive Statistics
  - Frequency polygons are graphs used to present data from a frequency distribution. The normal distribution, or bell shaped curve, is one common type of distribution.
  - Three measures of central tendency are the median (centre score), the mean (arithmetic average), and the mode (most frequent score).
  - The mean tends to be the most useful index of central tendency, but the median may be better if the mean is inflated by a few extreme scores
  - The standard deviation is an index of the amount of variability in a data set
- Inferential Statistics
  - Inferential statistics are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.
  - Hypothesis testing involves making calculations to determine whether research results are statistically significant.  Statistical significance exists when the probability that observed findings are due to chance is very low
- Correlation
  - Correlation exists when two variables are related to each other 
  -  Two types of correlation  Positive: variables co-vary in the same direction Negative: variables co-vary in the opposite direction 
  - Correlation Coefficient: Numerical index of degree of relationships between two variables  Strength: The closer the correlation to either -1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the relationship  Prediction: The stronger the correlation, the better one can predict. Causation: Correlation is not equivalent to causation
- Meta-Analysis
  - Combines statistical results of many studies of the same question  Results yield an estimate of the size and consistancy of a variables effects
Common Flaws in Research
- Sampling Bias
  - Exists when a sample is not representative of the population
- Placebo Effects
  - Occurs when participants expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty of fake treatment 
- Distortions In Self-report Data
  - Results from problems, such as social desirability bias and response sets, that happen when participants give verbal accounts of behaviour 
- Experimenter Bias
  - Occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcomes of a study influence the results obtained 
Ethical Issues
- Ethical Guidelines for Research in Canada
  - Principle 1: Respect for the dignity of persons 
  - Principle 2: Responsible & Caring 
  - Principle 3: Integrity in relationships
  - Principle 4: Responsibility to society
- Important Ethical Issues
  - Deception: should researchers be permitted to mislead research participants ??
  - Animals Research: Should researchers be permitted to subject animals to harmful or painful procedures ??
Key Terms
- Psychology is Empirical: It is based soon objective observations made through research
- Psychology is Theoretically Diverse: A variety of perspectives are needed to enhance our understanding of behaviour
- Theory: Is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations