The Research Enterprise In Psychology

The Research Enterprise In Psychology

1. The Scientific Approach

   • Goals
     • Measurement & Description
       • Scientists commitment to observation requires that an investigation figures out a way to measure phenomenon and study 
     • Understanding & Prediction
       • A higher level goal of science is understanding. Scientists believe that understand events when they can explain the reasons for occurrence of events. Scientists also make predictions otherwise known as a "hypothesis". A hypothesis is a tenative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Variables are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study.
     • Application & Control
       • This stage is where scientists hope that the information gathered is of practical value in helping solve everyday issues. & Also once people understand a phenomena, they often have more control over it
   • Steps in Investigation
     • 1. Formulate a testable hypothesis  2. Select a method of study & design the study3. Collect the data4. Analyze the data and draw conclusions 5. Report findings 
   • Advantages
     • -Clarity and precision yield better communication  -intolerance of error yields more reliable data
   • Research Approaches
     • Qualitative Methods : gathers information through observations and interveiws  Quantitative: data are collected through measuring things - includes facts and statistics 

2. Experimental Research

   • Elements
     • Independent Variable (IV): condition or event manipulated by experimenter Dependent Variable (DV): aspect of behaviour thought to be affected by independent variable  Experimental Group: participants who receive special treatment  Control Group: similar subjects who do not receive treatment given to experimental group  Extraneous Variables: factors besides IV that might affect DV, hence they need to be controlled  
   • Variations
     • -Can have one group of subjects serve as their own control group -can manipulate more than one independent variable in a study  -can use multiple dependent variables in a study
   • Advantages/Disadvantages
     • Advantages : - Permits conclusions about cause and effect relationships  Disadvantages : - Manipulations and control often make experiments artificial  - Practical realities and ethical concerns make it impossible to conduct experiments on many issues

3. Descriptive/Correlation Research

   • Methods
     • Naturalistic Observations
       • Careful, systematic observation, but no intervention with subjects 
     • Case Study
       • In-depth investigation of single participant, typically involving data from many sources 
     • Survey
   • Advantages/Disadvantages
     • Advantages: Broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists can study ( can explore issues that could not be examined with experimental methods) Disadvantages: Cannot demonstrate that two variables are casually related 

4. Statistics

   • Basic Descriptive Statistics
     • Frequency polygons are graphs used to present data from a frequency distribution. The normal distribution, or bell shaped curve, is one common type of distribution.
     • Three measures of central tendency are the median (centre score), the mean (arithmetic average), and the mode (most frequent score).
     • The mean tends to be the most useful index of central tendency, but the median may be better if the mean is inflated by a few extreme scores
     • The standard deviation is an index of the amount of variability in a data set
   • Inferential Statistics
     • Inferential statistics are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.
     • Hypothesis testing involves making calculations to determine whether research results are statistically significant.  Statistical significance exists when the probability that observed findings are due to chance is very low
   • Correlation
     • Correlation exists when two variables are related to each other 
     •  Two types of correlation  Positive: variables co-vary in the same direction Negative: variables co-vary in the opposite direction 
     • Correlation Coefficient: Numerical index of degree of relationships between two variables  Strength: The closer the correlation to either -1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the relationship  Prediction: The stronger the correlation, the better one can predict. Causation: Correlation is not equivalent to causation
   • Meta-Analysis
     • Combines statistical results of many studies of the same question  Results yield an estimate of the size and consistancy of a variables effects

5. Common Flaws in Research

   • Sampling Bias
     • Exists when a sample is not representative of the population
   • Placebo Effects
     • Occurs when participants expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty of fake treatment 
   • Distortions In Self-report Data
     • Results from problems, such as social desirability bias and response sets, that happen when participants give verbal accounts of behaviour 
   • Experimenter Bias
     • Occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcomes of a study influence the results obtained 

6. Ethical Issues

   • Ethical Guidelines for Research in Canada
     • Principle 1: Respect for the dignity of persons 
     • Principle 2: Responsible & Caring 
     • Principle 3: Integrity in relationships
     • Principle 4: Responsibility to society
   • Important Ethical Issues
     • Deception: should researchers be permitted to mislead research participants ??
     • Animals Research: Should researchers be permitted to subject animals to harmful or painful procedures ??

7. Key Terms

   • Psychology is Empirical: It is based soon objective observations made through research
   • Psychology is Theoretically Diverse: A variety of perspectives are needed to enhance our understanding of behaviour
   • Theory: Is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations

Images and files in the map