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chapter 2-memory (UNFINISHED)
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- 1what does________mean: -coding -duration -capacity -STM -LTM-coding=process of converting info to another form (semantically/acoustically)
-duration=time memory can be stored
-capacity-amount of memory stored
-STM=limited,acoustic
-LTM=permamnent,semantically - 2research into coding (procedure and findings)-Baddeley
-list of words
-acoustically/semantically similar/dissimilar
-recall straight away in same order=STM better accoustically
-recall after 20 mins=LTM better semantically - 3-research into capacity (procedure and findings) -chunking-Jacobs=digit span=gave digits to remember, recall in same order
-mean for digits=9.3 mean for letters=7.3
-Miller=observations of everyday practices
-"magic number 7"
-people can recall 5 digits as well as 5 letters=chunking=grouping - 4research for duration into STM (procedure and findings)-Margaret and Lloyd Peterson
-24 undergrads, 8 trials, given consonant syllable, given 3 digit number
-count back from 3 digit number=prevent rehearsal
-told to stop after 3,6,9.. sec
-STM has short duration unless repeated - 5research for duration into LTM (procedure and findings)-Bahrick studied 397 participants from Ohio from 17-74, year books obtained
-recall tested=photo recognition with 50 photos, free recall of names
-recognition=15yrs 90%,48yrs 70%
-recall 15yrs 60% ,48yrs 30%
-LTM long duration - 6evaluation for research on coding and why?-artificial stimuli
-word lists have no personal meaning
-cannot generalize findings to other types of memory tasks
-meaningful memories may be coded semantically
-limited applications - 7evaluation points for research on capacity-lacking validity
-over estimating capacity - 8evaluation points for duration-meaningless stimuli on STM study
-Higher external validity - 9why does research into capacity lack validity? (Jacobs)-long time ago
-lacked adequate control
-confounding variables
-effect result
however has reliability (repeated in other study) supports validity - 10how do we know that Miller overestimated capacity? and what is the capacity instead?-Cowan reviewed other research into STM capacity
-4 chunks rather than 7
-lacks reliability - 11(Peterson and Peterson) why is having a meaningless stimuli into duration a limitation?-syllables does not reflect real life memories
-IRL trying to remember meaningful things
-lacks external validity - 12why might Bahrick's study have high external validity-meaningful memories
-meaningless photo studies on LTM have lower recall rates
-variables cannot be controlled (may have looked at yearbooks before) - 13another criticism for Peterson and Peterson's research?explanations to why we forget things in STM:
-memory trace disappears if not rehearsed (spontaneous decay)
-information is displaced=STM has limited capacity,new info will push out existing memories - 14what does Shiffrin and Atkinson multi store model describe and suggest?D=how memory flows through the memory system
S=memory is made up of three stores linked by processing - 15-what happens at the sensory register? -main stores and how is info coded? -capacity? -duration?-info comes in from senses (has several stores)
-iconic memory(visual), echoic memory(acoustic)
-very high
-less than half a second - 16STM coding, capacity, duration (MSM) LTM coding,capacity,durationSTM-acoustically
-limited (7+/-)
-30 seconds unless rehearsed
LTM-semantically
-unlimited
-permanent
-when info is needed, transferred back into STM (retrieval) - 17difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?-maintenance=repeating it over again (keepin info in STM)
-elaborative=linking memory to existing knowledge (needed for info to be stored in LTM) - 18evaluation for MSM?-supporting evidence
-there is more than one type of STM
-type of rehearsal is important - 19what is the supporting research for MSM?-evidence for STM and LTM are different
-Baddeley=mix up similar sounding words when using STM
mix up similar meaning when using LTM
-shows difference between LTM and STM,supports unitary stores theory - 20what research is there to suggest that there is more than one type of STM? (MSM)-MSM=STM is a unitary store, might be more than one store in STM
-Shallice and Warrington= amnesia patient= KF
-poor STM for digits read allowed, strong for digits read by himself
-shows store for visual info and auditory - 21why is the type of rehearsal important, why does this counteract the MSM?-MSM=amount of rehearsal important for transforming into LTM, acc=type important
-Craik and Watkins=2 types of rehearsal: maintenance (STM) + elaborative (LTM) - 22why might the MSM lack external validity?-IRL memories are meaningful and related to useful things
-MSM research=digits and letters=meaningless - 23why might it not be true that the LTM is not unitary? (MSM)-lots of research evidence to suggest otherwise
-different store for practical memories and facts
-episodic, semantic and procedural memory - 24what is the is the working memory model? (Baddeley and Hitch)-a representation of the STM
-model consists of 4 main components = central executive, phonological loop, visio-spatial sketch pad, episodic buffer - 25what happens at the central executive? (WMM)-monitors incoming data
-allocates info to slave models
-c=limited d=brief - 26what happens at the phonological loop?-auditory info
divided into:phonological store (words heard), articulatory process (repeating words/sounds maintenance memory)
d=2 secs c=limited coded=acoustically - 27what happens at the visio spatial sketch pad?-visual and spatial info
-split into:visual cache (visual data) inner scribe (arangement of objects)
-allows us to recreate images
-c=limited d=limited - 28what is the episodic buffer?-temporary store for info, combines visual,spatial and verbal info processed by other stores
-records events (episodes that are happening)
-storage system for the CE
-bridges gap between the STM and LTM
-c=limited (4 chunks) d=tomporary - 29evaluation points for the WMM-clinical evidence
-support for visio-spatial sketch pad
-lack of clarity over central executive - 30what is the clinical evidence for WMM-Shallice and Warrington KF amnesia patient
-poor STM for verbal info but strong for visual
only phonological loop damaged
-supports evidence of seperate visual and acoustic store
-may not be reliable as study involved people with brain damage with traumatic experience - 31what support is there for the VSS-dual task performances
-Baddeley=participants found it difficult to perfome two visual tasks at the same time but easier to fo visual and verbal task
-competing for same slave system, VSS must exist to storr visual info - 32why is there a lack of clarity of the CE?-WMM doesn"t provide satisfactory explanation of CE
-aren't sure on the function
-some believe it may have seperate stores - 33how do studies of word length effect PL?-Baddeley= people find it hard to remeber list of long words than short words='word length effect"
=finite space for reherseal in articulatory process
-WLE decreases if given a articulatory supression task=repetative task that ties up articulartory process - 34what brain scan has been done to suport WMM?-Braver=gave participants tasks that involve CE whilst having a brain scan
-high amounts of activity in left prefrontal cortext
-activity increased as tasks became harder
-supports WMM as tasks become harder CE works harder - 35what are the different types of long term memory?-episodic memory
-semantic memory
-procedural memory - 36what is episodic memory?-ability to recall events
-memories are time stamped
-single memories are made up of several elements=people,places,objects
-takes conscious effort to recall - 37what is semantic memory?-general knowledge of the world (encyclopedia)
-unlimited capacity (always adding to it)
-less personal (we all share) - 38what is procedural memory?-memory for actions/skills
-without conscious effort to recall - 39evaluation points for types of long term memory-clinical evidence
-neuroimaging evidence
-real life application - 40what clinical evidence is there for long term memory?-HM and Clive Wearing=amnesia patients
-episodic memory impaired
-procedural and semantic memory fine
-supports different memory stores - 41neuroimaging evidence for long term memory?-Tulving
-brain scanned doing different activities
-episodic+ semantic memory had more activity in brain prefrontal cortex left=semantic right=episodic
-physical reality to brain stores - 42what is the real life application different types of long term memory-identifying different stores of LTM lets psychologists target certain types of memories to better peoples lives
-Belleville=episodic memories can be improved in older people who have mild cognitive impairment
-trained participants preformed better on a test of episodic memory than the control group
-highlights importance of differentiating LTM groups - 43why is it suggested that there may only be two types of LTM memory rather than three-Cohen and Squires
-episodic and semantic are part of the same LTM store=declarative memory=memories are consciously recalled - 44what are the two types of interference, and what are they an explanation for?-proactive =old memories,already stored, inhibit the recall of new memories
-retroactive =newer memories disrupt recall of older memories
- (degree of forgetting is greater when memories are similar)
-forgetting - 45what research is there into the effects of similarity on forgetting (interference theory) (procedure and findings)-McGeoch and McDonald
-studied retrospective interference
-changed similarities between 2 sets of materials, participants needed to have 100% recall
-different groups:1-synonyms 2-antonyms 3-words unrelated to original ones 4-nonsense syllables 5-3 digit numbers 6-no new list
-synonyms produced the worst recall - 46evaluation points for interference theory-evidence from lab studies
-artificial materials
-real life studies - 47what evidence is there from lab studies to support interference theory?-many research support
-most show that both types of interference are common ways of forgetting LTM
-increases validity - 48why is having artificial material to remember in interference studies a limitation?-interference most likely to be demonstrated because of artificial task
-mean nothing to them=trivial
-unlikely to remember
-validity, not likely explanation for real life forgetting - 49what real life study supports interference theory?-Hitch and Baddeley
-wanted to see if interference was a better explanation for forgetting then time
-asked rugby players names of teams played week by week
-findings=likelihood of forgetting greater when more games played between specific game asked to recall - 50why is time between learning a limitation when testing interference theory?-experiment purposely designed to maximise possibility of interference =short time periods between learning lists
-experience of recall done in under an hour - 51what is the encoding specificity principle?-tulving
-if a cue is to help us recall info then it must be present at encoding
-if cues are different then forgetting happens - 52what are the two examples of encoding specifity principle (retrieval failure)-context dependent forgetting
-state dependen forgetting - 53what is the study for context dependent forgetting?-godden and baddeley
-deep sea divers remember lists of words
-learn on land recall on land
-learn on land recall underwater (vice versa for underwater)
-found that retrieval failure more likely to happen when context in learning and recall were different (40% lower) - 54what is the study for state dependant forgetting?-carter and cassaday
-gave anti-hisatamine drugs containing mild sedatives to patients and and asked to recall words and passages from prosse in different physiological conditions
-learn on drugs recall on drugs
-learn on drugs recall when normal
-found that mismatch of internal cues increases retrieval failure - 55what is______ retrieval failure cues-dont have neccisary cues to access memories,memory is available but suitable cues not provided
-a trigger that allows access to memory, can be external (environment) or internal (physiological state) - 56evaluation points for retrieval failure-supporting evidence
-questioning context effects
-context effects related to kind of memory being tested - 57what supporting evidence for retrieval failure?-many supporting research
-increases validity - 58why is context effects in retrieval failure questionable?-context effects not very strong esp in real life
-very unlikely to have 2 extremely different environments as in study
-real life application - 59why might context effect be related to type of memory being tested (retrieval failure)-replication of context dependent study but used recognition tests instead of recall (asked to say when they recognised a word)
-no context dependent effects
-limitation=cues only effects memory when tested in a certain way - 60what are the problems with encoding specificity principle?-cannot be tested
-simply assume in tests that cues are encoded at learning
-if cue does not result in successful recall then it is assumed the cue was not encoded
-unreliable and lacks validity - 61who,how and what did the leading question experiment find?-Loftus and Palmer=participants watch clip of car accident, gave questions about questions
-critical question (leading question) to describe how fast they were going at the time of the accident
-each group had different verb="hit" "contacted" "bumped" "collided" "smashed"
-mean estimated speed= "contacted"=31.8 mph "smashed"=40.5 mph - 62why do leading questions affect eye witness testimony?-response bias explanation=wording has no effect on memory, but influences answer
-Loftus+Palmer=supported substitution explanation=leading question changes memory= those hearing "smash" likely to report seeing glass than "hit" - 63what are post event discussions? study-co-witnesses discuss event, contaminate testimonies
-Gabbert=studied participant pairs=ptp watched vid of same crime, but from different POV=couldn't see everything, both participants discussed what they had seen before individually completing test of recall
-findings=71% mistakenly recalled event they had not seen, but had picked up in discussion. control group=no discussion 0%
-go along for social approval=other person is right=memory conformity - 64evaluation for misleading information?-useful for real life applications
-tasks artificial
-individual differences
-demand characteristics - 65what are the useful real life applications of misleading information?Loftus=leading questions have distorting effect and police need to be careful about how to phrase questions when interviewing
-can improve legal system/ by appearing in court trials as expert witnesses - 66in misleading information experiments, why is it a limitation that tasks are artificial?-different from experiencing crash in real life=lack stress factor, evidence that emotion can affect memory
- 67what are the individual differences affecting misleading information-age
-older people less acurate than younger people when giving eyewitness report
-Anastasi+Rhodes, people in age groups 18-25 and 35-45 more accurate than 55-78
-all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of own age (own age bias) - 68demand characteristics in misleading information-Zaragosa+McCloskey=many answers given in lab studies are result of demand characteristics
-particiants don't want to let researcher down, guess answer to question they don't know - 69how can anxiety effect EWT? experiment (negative)-anxiety has negative effect on recall
-creates psychological arousal=prevents paying attention to important cues
Johnson+Scott=partcipants (unware of experiment) seated in room, argument heard, man walked out with pen and greasy hands (low anxiety)
-others heard heated argument, accompanied with broken glass, man emerged with plastic knife and bloody hands (high anxiety)
-findings=participants told to pick out man from 50 photos. 49% of LA correct. 33% of HA correct
tunnel theory of memory argues witness's attention narrows to focus on weapon (source of anxiety) - 70how can anxiety have a positive affect on recall?-fight or flight response triggered triggering increase in alertness/improves memory
-Yuille+Cutshall=study of real life shooting in Vancouver. Shop owner killed thief. interviews held 4-5 months after and compared with police interviews at the time. accuracy determined by number of details reported in each account
-participants also asked how stressed they felt on 7 point scale, asked of any emotional problems since event
-findings=accurate in account, little change in accuracy after 5 months, some details less accurate - 71how can we explain the contradictory findings of the effects of anxiety?-Yerkes Dodson law=lower levels of anxiety produce lower accuracy recall
-memory becomes more accurate as anxiety heightens
-optimal level of anxiety reached after that point recall accuracy decreases - 72evaluation points for anxiety and EWTweapon focus may not be relevant
-field studies may lack control
-ethical issues
-inverted U explanation too simplistic - 73why might the weapon focus effect be irrelevant? (anxiety)-may be surprise more than anxiety
-Pickel=conducted experiment using scissors, handgun, wallet, raw chicken as hand held item in hairdressing salon video (scissors would not cause anxiety)
-eyewitness accuracy poorer than unusual conditions
-focus due to unusualness rather than anxiety - 74why might field studies sometimes lack control?-interview eyewitnesses sometime after event
-other things out of control to the researcher may happen e.g talk to other witnesses. accounts on the news/media, effects of being interviews by the police
-extraneous variables - 75what are the ethical issues of anxiety and witness testimony?-creating anxiety in patients=risky
-unethical because of risk of psychological harm
-benefits may outweigh issues - 76why is the inverted U explanation too simplistic?-anxiety difficult to measure and define accurately
-has many elements=cognitive, behavioral, emotional, physical - 77what is a cognitive interview?method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help retrieve accurate memories based on well established psychological knowledge of human memory
- 78what are the main techniques of cognitive interview outlined by Fisher and Geiselman?-report everything
-reinstate the context (take back to time and place, remembering emotions)
-reverse the order
-change perspectives (perspective of other witness to disrupt effect of expectation and schema on recall) - 79what is enhanced cognitive interview?Fisher=additional elements of CI to focus on interacation
e.g interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact/when to relinquish it
enhanced CI includes reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting witness to speak slowly and asking open ended questions - 80evaluation points for cognitive interview-CI is time consuming
-Some elements may be valuable than others
-support for effectiveness of ECI
-CI creates increase in inaccurate information - 81why is CI time consuming?-more time than standard police interview
-more time needed to establish rapport with witness and allow them to relax
-CI requires special training, many forces not able to provide more than a few hours
-meaning its unlikely that proper version of CI is actually used, may explain why police have not been impressed by it - 82what elements of CI may be more valuable than others, and why?-Milne+Bull=every individual element equally valuable
-individually, each technique produced more info than the standard police interview
-combo of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall than any other combo
-increases credibility - 83where does support for effectivness of ECI come from?-meta-analysis by Kohnken combined data from 50 studies
-consistently provided correct info than standard interview used by police
-better chance of catching criminals=better society - 84why might CI create an increase in inaccurate information?-CI designed to increase amount of correct recall, but can also increase incorrect recall
-Kohnken=81% increase of correct info but also 61% increase of incorrect info when enhanced CI was compared to standard interview
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- Flashcards on chapter 2-memory, created by haniah shujahat on 14/12/2017.
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- haniah shujahat
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