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Memory

Amy Warrell Psychology A level Englisch 196 Karten

Memory

Karten in diesem Stapel (196)

  1. 1What is the short-term memory (STM)Limited-capacity memory store
  2. 2Coding in the STMMainly acoustic
    (sometimes visual)
  3. 3Capacity of the STM5-9 items
  4. 4Duration of the STM18-30 seconds
  5. 5What is the long-term memory (LTM)Permanent memory store
  6. 6Coding in the LTMMainly semantic
  7. 7Capacity of the LTMUnlimited
  8. 8Duration of the LTMCan store memories up to a lifetime
  9. 9What is coding?The process of converting info from one format to another/to the format in which info is stored in the various memory stores
    (Info stored in different formats depending on the memory store)
  10. 10Who did research on coding?Baddeley (1966)
  11. 11Baddeley (1966): ProcedureGave different lists of words to four groups of Ps to remember:
    - Group 1 = acoustically similar
    - Group 2 = acoustically dissimilar
    - Group 3 = semantically similar
    - Group 4 = semantically dissimilar
    Asked to recall words in correct order, either immediately or after 20 mins
  12. 12Baddeley (1966): FindingsImmediate STM recall - acoustically similar words tended to be worst; suggests STM coding is acoustic
    After 20 mins LTM recall - semantically similar words tended to be worst; suggests LTM coding is semantic
  13. 13Evaluate: research on codingARTIFICIAL STIMULI
    Instead of meaningful material, word lists had no personal meaning to Ps. Should thus be cautious of generalising findings to different kinds of memory tasks. E.g. when processing meaningful info, people tend to use semantic coding even for STM tasks. Findings have limited application.
  14. 14What is capacity?Amount of info that can be held in a memory store
  15. 15Who did research on capacity?Jacobs (1887)
    Miller (1956)
  16. 16Jacobs (1887): ProcedureDIGIT SPAN
    Gave a list of a set of numbers; P asked to recall these
    If recalled in correct order, researcher gave out another set of numbers but with one more than last time
    This continued until P could no longer recall in correct order
    This determines digit span
  17. 17Jacobs (1887): FindingsMean span for digits = 9.3 numbers
    Mean span for letters = 7.3 letters
  18. 18Evaluate: Jacobs (1887)LACKING VALIDITY
    Conducted long time ago - early psychology often lacked adequate control. E.g. some Ps may have been distracted while being tested so didn't perform as well as they might have done, and this might affect the mean. Results not as valid due to confounding variables not being controlled. However, results have been confirmed by other research which supports its validity.
  19. 19Miller (1956)SPAN OF MEMORY + CHUNKING
    Made observations of everyday practice
    Noticed that things came in 7s (e.g. notes in musical scale, days of week, deadly sins) - suggests that capacity of STM is 7+/-2
    Also noticed that people can recall 5 words as easily as 5 letters by chunking
  20. 20What is chunking?Grouping sets of digits or letters into units - more memorable
  21. 21Evaluate: Miller (1956)INACCURATE
    May have overestimated capacity of STM. E.g. Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded that capacity was only about 4 chunks. Suggests that lower end of Miller's estimate may be more appropriate than 7. However, size of these chunks were not specified so we cannot conclude exact capacity of STM.
  22. 22Evaluate: Research on capacityOTHER FACTORS NOT TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT
    E.g. age; this research cannot solely be used to determine capacity
  23. 23What is duration?Length of time info can be held in a memory store before forgetting takes place
  24. 24Who did research on duration of the STM?Peterson & Peterson (1959)
  25. 25P&P: ProcedureTested 24 undergrads in 8 trials
    On each trial, student was given a trigram/consonant syllable to remember and a three-digit number
    Asked to count down from number in specified intervals (e.g. 3s, 4s) until told to stop
    Told to stop after a different length of time in each trial: 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds - retention interval (Brown Peterson technique)
  26. 26Why were Ps asked to count down from a random number?To prevent mental rehearsal of the trigram - interference task
  27. 27P&P: FindingsSTM may have a very short duration - 18 seconds - unless we have verbal rehearsalP&P: Findings
  28. 28Evaluate: P&P1. Meaningless stimuli
    2. Lacks internal validity
    3. Sample issues
    4. Easy to replicate as highly controlled lab experiment
  29. 29Evaluate: P&P 1. Meaningless stimuliTrigrams does not reflect real life memory activities where what we have to remember is meaningful: lacks external validity, but not entirely irrelevant as sometimes we do try to remember fairly meaningless things e.g. phone numbers.
  30. 30Evaluate: P&P 2. Lacks internal validityOne explanation for forgetting is spontaneous decay - memory trace disappears if not rehearsed. Another is that info is displaced - limited capacity so new info pushes out what is in there. Counting down during retention intervals may have displaced trigrams out of STM.
  31. 31Evaluate: P&P 3. Sample issuesSample was psychology students. May have studied memory and might have learnt strategies for memory improvement. Cannot generalise for non-psychology students.
  32. 32Who did research on duration of the LTM?Bahrick et al. (1975)
  33. 33Bahrick et al. (1975): Procedure392 Ps from Ohio aged 17-74
    Obtained their high school year books
    Recall tested by photo recognition test of 50 photos and free recall (recalling all names from graduating class)
  34. 34Bahrick et al. (1975): FindingsPhoto recognition:
    After 15 years - 90% accurate
    After 48 years - 70% accurate
    Free recall:
    After 15 years - 60%
    After 48 years - 30%
    Shows that LTM can last substantial length of time
  35. 35Evaluate: Bahrick et al. (1956)1. Higher external validity
    2. Lacks population validity
    3. Doesn't explain why LTM becomes less accurate over time
  36. 36Evaluate: Bahrick et al. (1956) 1. Higher external validityReal-life meaningful memories were studied. When studies on LTM have used meaningless pictures, recall rates were lower (e.g. Shepard, 1967). However, such real-life research does not control for confounding variables such as the fact that some Ps may have looked at their yearbook more often so rehearsed memory over time.
  37. 37Evaluate: Bahrick et al. (1956) 2. Lacks population validitySample was of American university graduate - can't generalise to other populations. Unable to conclude whether other populations would demonstrate the same amount of recall.
  38. 38Evaluate: Bahrick et al. (1956) 3. Doesn't explain why LTM becomes less accurate over timeStudy showed recall for photo recognition dropped from 90% accuracy to 70%, but doesn't explain whether LTM gets less accurate due to a limited duration or just with age. Psychologists thus unable to determine whether LTM has a limited/unlimited capacity.
  39. 39Who proposed the multi-store model of memory (MSM)?Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
  40. 40What is the MSM?A representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores, how it is transferred between these stores, and how it is remembered and forgottenWhat is the MSM?
  41. 41What are the 3 stores named in the MSM?Sensory register
    STM
    LTM
  42. 42What is the sensory register in the MSM?Memory stores for each of the 5 senses
  43. 43How is info coded in the sensory register?Modality specific
    Iconic store = visual info/visual
    Echoic store = auditory info/acoustic
  44. 44What is the capacity of the sensory register?Huge - e.g. over a hundred million cells in each eye
  45. 45What is the duration of the sensory register?Info stored for less than half a second - info is only passed further into memory system if we pay attention to it, otherwise it will fade
  46. 46What is the STM in the MSM?Limited capacity store
  47. 47How is info coded in the STM?Mostly acoustically
  48. 48What is the capacity of the STM?Can store 7+/-2 items before forgetting takes place
  49. 49Doing what can increase capacity of the STM?Chunking
  50. 50What is the duration of the STM?18-30 seconds, unless rehearsed
  51. 51How does rehearsal take place in the STM?Maintenance rehearsal via the rehearsal loop - occurs when we repeat material over and over - rehearsing long enough will pass the info into LTM
  52. 52How might information be lost in the STM?Displacement by other info
  53. 53What is the LTM in the MSM?Potentially permanent memory store for info that has been rehearsed for a long time
  54. 54How is info coded in the LTM?Semantically
  55. 55What is the capacity of the LTM?Believed to be unlimited
  56. 56What is the duration of the LTM?Decades if not a lifetime (shown by Bahrick et al., 1975)
  57. 57According to MSM, how do we recall info?Transferring it back to STM by retrieval - MSM says this is true of all memories and none are directly recalled from the LTM
  58. 58Evaluate: MSM1. Supporting research evidence
    2. More than one type of STM
    3. More than one type of rehearsal
    4. Lacks ecological validity
    5. More than one type of LTM
  59. 59Evaluate: MSM 1. Supporting research evidenceStudies that show that STM and LTM are qualitatively different. E.g. Baddeley found that we tend to mix up words that sound similar when using STM, but mix up words with similar meanings in the LTM. Shows that coding in the STM is acoustic and is semantic in the LTM - support MSM's idea that these two stores are separate and independent.
  60. 60Evaluate: MSM 2. More than one type of STMMSM states that the STM is a unitary store. However, evidence from people studying amnesia show that this cannot be true. E.g. Shallice & Warrington (1970) studied KF - found that his STM for digits was very poor when they read them out loud to him, but recall was much better when he was able to read them himself. Further studies show that there could even be another short-term store for non-verbal sounds. Unitary STM is a limitation for MSM as research shows that there must be at least one short-term store to process visual info, and one to process acoustic (shown in WMM).
  61. 61Evaluate: MSM 3. More than one type of rehearsalAccording to MSM, the more rehearsal that takes place the more likely the info will be passed into LTM. Craik & Watkins (1973) found that this is wrong. Maintenance rehearsal described in MSM does not actually transfer info to LTM, only maintains it in the STM. Elaborative rehearsal is needed for long-term storage, and occurs when a person links the info to their existing knowledge, or think about what it means. Serious limitation as this is another research finding that cannot be explained by the MSM.
  62. 62Evaluate: MSM 4. Lacks ecological validityLots of research studies supporting MSM used artificial stimuli in lab settings - using digits/letters/sometimes words. Some even used consonant syllables which have no meaning.
  63. 63Evaluate: MSM 5. More than one type o LTMThere is research evidence to suggest that LTM is not a unitary store. E.g. Tulving showed that we have one store for facts about the world (semantic), one for memories of how to perform certain tasks (procedural), and one for events in our lives (episodic memory)). This means that MSM could be seen as reductionist.
  64. 64Who identified the limitation of MSM viewing LTM as a unitary store?Tulving (1985)
  65. 65What can the LTM be divided into?Declarative memory
    Procedural memory
  66. 66What are declarative memories? (Declarative not part of Tulving's proposal; he proposed 3 separate stores)Explicit memories that can be inspected and recalled consciously
  67. 67What can declarative memory be further divided into?Episodic memory
    Semantic memory
  68. 68What is episodic memory?- Store for personal events
    - Includes memories of when events occurred, of people, objects, places and behaviours
    - Memories are time-stamped
    - Memories have to be retrieved consciously and with effort
  69. 69What is semantic memory?- Store for our knowledge of the world
    - Includes facts and our knowledge of what words/concepts mean
    - Memories not time-stamped
    - Less personal and more about the facts we all share
    - Material is constantly being added to
    - Memories have to be recalled deliberately
  70. 70What is procedural memory?- Implicit
    - Store for our knowledge of how to do things: AN ACTION OR SKILLS-BASED MEMORY
    - Includes memories of learned skills and muscle memory
    - Become more automatic as a result of practice
    - Usually recalled without conscious/deliberate effort
  71. 71Evaluate: Types of LTM1. Clinical evidence
    2. Neuroimaging evidence
    3. Real-life applications
    4. Two LTM stores instead of three
  72. 72Evaluate: Types of LTM 1. Clinical evidenceCase studies of HM and Clive Wearing are relevant. Episodic memory in both was severely impaired due to amnesia. Great difficulty recalling events that had happened in the past but semantic memories were relatively unaffected. E.g. they still understood the meaning of words. E.g. HM and dog - could not remember stroking it, but understood the concept of it. Procedural memories also intact - both knew how to tie shoelaces, and how to walk and speak. Supports Tulving's view of three separate memory stores in LTM. Fact that one can be damaged and others remain unaffected clearly shows that not only they are different, but are stored in different parts of the brain.
  73. 73Evaluate: Types of LTM 2. Neuroimaging evidenceBrain scan studies show that different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain. Tulving et al. (1994) got Ps to perform various memory tasks while scanning their brains using a PET scanner. Found that episodic and semantic were recalled from prefrontal cortex. This is divided into 2, one in each hemisphere of the brain - left involved in semantic memories, and right involved in episodic memories. Supports the view that there is a physical reality to the different types of LTM, and this has been confirmed many times, further supporting validity.
  74. 74Evaluate: Types of LTM 3. Real-life applicationsBeing able to identify different aspects of the LTM allows psychologists to target certain kinds of memory in order to better people's lives. Belleville et al. (2006) demonstrated that episodic memories could be improved in older people who had a mild cognitive impairment. Trained Ps performed better on a test of episodic memory than a control group. Highlights benefit of being able to distinguish between types of LTM as it allows specific treatments to be developed.
  75. 75Evaluate: Types of LTM 4. Two LTM stores instead of threeCohen & Squire (1980) disagree with Tulving's division of LTM into three types. They accept that procedural memory makes up one type of LTM, but argue that episodic and semantic are stored together in a store known as declarative memory - explicit memories can be consciously recalled. This is in contrast to procedural memories which are implicit and non-declarative.
  76. 76What is the working memory model (WMM)?A representation of the ATM, suggesting that it is not a passive store (as MSM suggested0 by a dynamic processor of different types of info using sub-units coordinated by a central decision-making systemWhat is the working memory model (WMM)?
  77. 77Who proposed the WMM?Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
  78. 78What are the 4 components of the WMM?Central executive
    Phonological loop
    Visuo-spatial sketchpad
    Episodic buffer
  79. 79What does the central executive do?Coordinates the three sub-systems involved in memory
    Allocates processing resources to these systems
  80. 80How does the central executive code info?It is modality free - can store info in any sense
  81. 81What is the capacity of the central executive?Limited capacity
  82. 82What does the phonological loop do?Deals with auditory info - written and spoken material
    Receives info either from LTM or ears
    Preserves the order in which info arrives
  83. 83How does the phonological loop code info?Acoustically
  84. 84What is the capacity of the phonological loop?Info decays after 2 seconds unless rehearsed
  85. 85What is the phonological loop divided into?Phonological store
    Articulatory control system
  86. 86What does the phonological store do?Stores words that are heard
  87. 87What does the articulatory control system do?Allows for maintenance rehearsal
  88. 88What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do?Stores visual and spatial info
    Receives info from either LTM or eyes
  89. 89How do the visuo-spatial sketchpad code info?Visually and spatially
  90. 90What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?Limited capacity - 3 or 4 objects according to Baddeley
  91. 91What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad divided into and who determined this?Visual cache
    Inner scribe
    Logie (1995)
  92. 92What does the visual cache do?Stores visual info
  93. 93What does the inner scribe do?Records arrangement of objects in the visual filed
  94. 94What is the episodic buffer?Most recent addition: Baddeley (2000)
    Temporary store for info
    Integrates visual, spatial and verbal info processed by the other stores
    Maintains sense of time-sequencing
    Links working memory to LTM and wider cognitive processes (e.g. perception)
  95. 95How does the episodic buffer code info?It is modality free
  96. 96What is the capacity of the episodic buffer?Limited capacity - about 4 chunks
  97. 97What is dual-task performance?If one store is used for both tasks than the tasks are performed poorer than when they are performed separately, due to limited capacity. If tasks use different stores, performance will be unaffected when performing them simultaneously.
  98. 98Evaluate: WMM (1974)1. High face validity
    2. Clinical evidence
    3. Dual task performance
    4. Lack of clarity over central executive
  99. 99Evaluate: WMM (1974) 1. High face validityMeans that model seems plausible, because (in this case) it fits in with everyday experience of manipulating info when solving problems with the STM as it is a dynamic processor rather than static store. E.g. Baddeley (1997) suggests that mentally counting windows in house demonstrates operations of working memory. Person visualises each room to form a mental image of each window (sketchpad); will count windows using phonological loop to rehearse the numbers; this info will be coordinated by the central executive. This means it is more likely to be widely accepted as a theory as people can apply it to everyday life.
  100. 100Evaluate: WMM (1974) 2. Clinical evidenceFrom Shallice & Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF who had suffered brain damage. He had poor STM ability for verbal info but could process visual info (had difficulty recalling sounds but could recall letters/digits). Suggests that phonological loop had been damaged, leaving other areas of memory intact. Supports existence of separate visual and acoustic stores. [However evidence from brain damaged patients may not be reliable as it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experience, and there is often a lack of control of variables).
  101. 101Evaluate: WMM (1974) 3. Dual task performanceStudies of this support existence of visuo-spatial sketchpad. Baddeley et al. (1975) showed that Ps had more difficulty doing two visual tasks (tracking light and describing letter F) than doing both a visual and a verbal task at the same time. This increased difficulty as both visual tasks compete for same slave system whereas there is no competition when doing a verbal and a visual task. Means there must be a separate slave system that processes visual input.
  102. 102Evaluate: WMM (1974) 4. Lack of clarity over central executiveCognitive psychologists suggest that this component of the WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn't really explain anything. Baddeley himself said that it is 'the most important by the least understood component of working memory (2003). Needs to be more clearly specified. E.g. some psychologists suggest it consists of many components. Functions are vague so difficult to test (e.g. how limited capacity can be measured independently of other components is unclear). This means that the WMM has not been fully explained as there is not a clear way of studying the central executive in isolation.
  103. 103What are the 2 main explanations for forgetting?Interference theory
    Retrieval failure
  104. 104What is interference?Forgetting because one memory blocks another/they conflict, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten
  105. 105How does interference cause forgetting in the LTM?Info in the LTM is more or less permanent. Interference makes it harder to locate memories so we can't get access to them - this is experienced as forgetting
  106. 106What are the 2 types of interference?Proactive interference
    Retroactive interference
  107. 107What is proactive interference?Forgetting when an older memory interferes with a newer one
  108. 108What is retroactive interference?Forgetting when a newer memory interferes with an older one
  109. 109What increases the degree of forgetting?When memories are similar
  110. 110Who investigated effects of similarity?McGeoch & McDonald (1931)
  111. 111McGeoch & McDonald (1931): ProcedureStudied retroactive interference by changing amount of similarity between 2 sets of materials
    Ps had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy
    Then learnt a new list:
    1. Synonyms of original
    2. Antonyms
    3. Words unrelated to original
    4. Nonsense syllables
    5. Three-digit numbers
    6. No new list
  112. 112McGeoch & McDonald (1931): FindingsWhen Ps recalled original list, performance depended on nature of second list.
    Most similar material produced worst recall - shows that interference is strongest when memories are similar    McGeoch & McDonald (1931): Findings
  113. 113Evaluate: Interference theory1. Evidence from lab studies
    2. Artificial materials
    3. Real-life studies
    4. Interference effects may be overcome by using cues
    (5. Intuitively correct/high face validity
    6. Only explains lack of recall when info is similar)
  114. 114Evaluate: interference theory 1. Evidence from lab studiesInterference in memory is one of the most consistently demonstrated findings in psych. E.g. McGeoch & McDonald (1931) studied retroactive interference by changing degree of similarity between two sets of materials. Ps learnt a list of 10 words, then a new list, before recalling original list. Six groups (synonyms, antonyms, etc). Found that most similar material produced worst recall, indicating that interference is strongest when memories are similar. Strength: lab experiments are highly controlling of extraneous variables, giving this explanation high internal validity/we can be confident that this is a valid explanation for forgetting.
  115. 115Evaluate: Interference theory 2. Artificial materialsMuch greater chance that interference will be demonstrated in a lab than in a real-life situation. Stimuli used in most studies are word lists - not type of materials that people need to remember in everyday life. Means that use of artificial stimuli may only be useful for demonstrating interference in the lab, but no in real life, so use of lab experiments to support interference theory have low ecological validity.
  116. 116Evaluate: Interference theory 3. Real-life studiesHowever some research has considered interference effects in more everyday situations. Baddeley & Hitch (1977) wanted to find out whether interference was a better explanation for forgetting than the passage of time. Asked rugby players to try to remember names of teams they had played so far in that season, week by week. As most players had missed games, for some the most recent match may have been over two weeks before. Accuracy of recall did not depend on how long ago the matches took place; number of games they had played in the meantime had more of an effect - players recall of a team played three weeks ago was better had they not played any matches since. Study shows that interference explanation can apply to at least some everyday situations.
  117. 117Evaluate: Interference theory 4. Interference effects may be overcome using cuesTulving & Psotka (1971) gave Ps five lists of 24 words, each list organised into 6 categories. Categories were not explicit but it was presumed that they would be obvious to Ps. Recall was around 70% for first word list but this fell as Ps were given each additional list to learn, probably due to interference. However, when given a cued recall test (told names of categories) recall rose again to around 70%.
  118. 118What is retrieval failure?Form of forgetting which occurs when we don't have the necessary cues to access the memory - it is out of context
    [Memory is available but not accessible)
  119. 119When info is initially stored in memory, what is also stored at the same time?Associated cues
  120. 120What is a cue?Trigger of info that allows us to access a memory - could be meaningful or indirectly linked
  121. 121What 2 types of cue are there?External cues (environment)
    Internal cues (e.g. mood)
  122. 122What do external cues lead to?Context-dependent forgetting
  123. 123What do internal cues lead to?State-dependent forgetting
  124. 124What is ESP?Encoding specificity principle - states that if a cue is to help us recall info, it must be present at time of learning and at retrieval. If cues at encoding/retrieval are different or absent, then forgetting takes place.
  125. 125Who proposed ESP and why?Tulving (1983) as he reviewed research into retrieval failure and found a consistent pattern to findings which he identified as ESP
  126. 126Who investigated context-dependent forgetting?Godden & Baddeley (1975) - deep sea divers working underwater (situation where it is crucial to remember instructions)
  127. 127Godden & Baddeley (1975): ProcedureDivers learned a list of words either underwater/on land and recalled words either underwater/on land, depending on condition they were in:
    - Learn on land, recall on land
    - Learn on land, recall underwater
    - Learn underwater, recall underwater
    - Learn underwater, recall on land
  128. 128Godden & Baddeley (1975): FindingsAccurate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions as external cues were different at learning and recall which led to retrieval failure
  129. 129Who investigated state-dependent forgetting?Carter & Cassaday (1998)
  130. 130Carter & Cassaday (1998): ProcedurePs given anti-histamine drugs which have a mild sedative effect - creates internal psychological state different to normal
    Learned list of words and passages of prose and had to recall:
    - Learn on drug, recall on drug
    - Learn on drug, recall not on drug
    - Learn not on drug, recall not on drug
    - Learn not on drug, recall on drug
  131. 131Carter & Cassaday (1998): FindingsPerformance significantly worse in non-matching conditions - when cues are absent there is more forgetting
  132. 132Evaluate: Retrieval failure1. Supporting evidence
    2. Questioning context effects
    3. Recall vs recognition
    4. Practical applications
  133. 133Evaluate: Retrieval failure 1. Supporting evidenceGodden & Baddeley (1975) and Carter & Cassaday (1998) support this. One prominent researcher Eysenck (2010) argues that retrieval failure is the main reason for forgetting in the LTM. Evidence shows that retrieval failure occurs both in real-life situations as well as in highly-controlled lab conditions - high internal and external validity.
  134. 134Evaluate: Retrieval failure 2. Questioning context effectsBaddeley (1997) actually argues that context effects are not very strong, especially in real life. Different contexts must be significantly different before an effect is seen, and it would be difficult to find an environment as different from land as underwater. To contrast, learning something in one room and recalling it in another is unlikely to result in much forgetting as these environments are generally not very different. Means that real-life applications of retrieval failure due to contextual cues do not actually explain much forgetting.
  135. 135Evaluate: Retrieval failure 3. Recall vs recognitionContext effects may be related to kind of memory being tested. Godden & Baddeley (1980) replicated their underwater experiment but used recognition test instead. Ps did not have to recall words, only say if they recognised them. Here there was no context-dependent affect and performance was same in all four conditions. Means that presence/absence of cues only affects memory when tested in a certain way.
  136. 136Evaluate: Retrieval failure 4. Real-life applicationsUseful in forensic/police work - idea of context-dependent forgetting used in cognitive interviews to help facilitate recall of eyewitnesses. Means that more info can be obtained, increasing likelihood of charging criminals and benefitting society as a whole.
  137. 137What is an eyewitness testimony (EWT)?Ability of people to remember details of events which they have observed
  138. 138What factors can affect EWT?Misleading info
    Leading questions
    Anxiety
  139. 139What is misleading info?Incorrect info given to the eyewitness usually after the event - can take many forms
  140. 140What is a leading question?A question which suggests a certain answer due to the way it is phrased; might have connotations which encourage a certain answer
  141. 141Who investigated the effect of leading questions?Loftus & Palmer (1974)
  142. 142Loftus & Palmer (1974): ProcedureArranged for Ps to watch film clips of car accidents, then gave them questions about the accident
    In the critical question (leading) Ps were asked to describe how fast the cars were travelling
    Five groups each received different verb in the critical question:
    - Hit
    - Contacted
    - Bumped
    - Collided
    - Smashed
  143. 143Loftus & Palmer (1974): FindingsCalculated mean estimated speed for each group:
    Contacted - 31.8mph
    Smashed - 40.5mph
    Leading questions biased the eyewitness recall of an event
  144. 144What explanation does this support?Response-bias explanation
  145. 145What is the response-bias explanation?Suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on Ps memories, only influences how they decide to answer. When a P gets a leading question with 'smashed', they are encouraged to choose a higher speed estimate.
  146. 146What explanation did Loftus & Palmer's (1974) second experiment support?Substitution explanation
  147. 147What is the substitution explanation?Suggests that the wording of the leading question actually changes the Ps memory of the clip
  148. 148What did the second experiment demonstrate?Showed that Ps who originally heard 'smashed' were more likely to report broken glass than those who heard 'hit'
  149. 149Evaluation points for Loftus & Palmer (1974)- Questionable ecological validity
    - Lack of population validity (only US students)
    - Highly controlled so replicable
  150. 150What is post-event discussion?Occurs when there is more than one eyewitness to an event - they may discuss what they have seen with other witnesses and this may contaminate their own testimony as they combine info from other witnesses with their own memories
  151. 151Who investigated post-event discussion?Gabbert et al. (2003)
  152. 152Gabbert et al. (2003): ProcedureStudied Ps in pairs - used students from Aberdeen University and adults from local community
    Each P watched a video of the same crime but from a different point of view so that each could see elements that the other could not
    Both then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a recall test
  153. 153Gabbert et al. (2003): Findings- 71% mistakenly recalled aspects of the events that they had not seen in the video but had picked up in discussion
    - 0% did this in a control group (no discussion)
    - Concluded that witnesses often go along with each other for either social approval or because they believe that the other witnesses are right (memory conformity)
  154. 154Evaluation points for Gabbert et al. (2003)- Questionable ecological validity as lab experiment so demand characteristics?
    - Fairly good population validity
    - Unable to determine whether conformity occurs for social approval or due to believing other witnesses
  155. 155Evaluate: Misleading info affecting EWT1. Useful real-life applications
    2. Artificial tasks (L&P)
    3. Individual differences
    4. Demand characteristics
  156. 156Evaluate: Misleading info affecting EWT 1. Useful real-life applicationsIn real world, inaccurate EWT can have serious consequences - research suggests it is unreliable in the criminal justice system. Loftus (1975) believes hat leading questions can have such a distorting effects on memory that police officers have to be very careful about how they phrase their questions. Research into EWT is one area in which psychologists can make a big difference to peoples lives, for example by improving the way the legal system works and by appearing in court trials as expert witnesses.
  157. 157Evaluate: Misleading info affecting EWT 2. Artificial tasks (L&P)Ps watched film clips - very different experience to actually witnessing an accident, mainly as clips lack stress of a real accident - some evidence suggests this stress increases accuracy, and there is some evidence to suggest that emotions all have an influence on memory. Means these experiments may tell us very little about how leading questions affect EWT when there are real accidents/crimes. Researchers may be too pessimistic about accuracy of EWT - may be more reliable than studies suggest.
  158. 158Evaluate: Misleading info affecting EWT 3. Individual differencesThere is evidence to suggest that older people are less accurate than younger people when giving EWT. Anastasi & Rhodes (2006) found that young people aged 18-25 and 35-45 were more accurate than those in the 55-78 group. However, all were accurate at identifying people of their own age group - own age bias.
  159. 159Evaluate: Misleading info affecting EWT 4. Demand characteristicsZaragosa & McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers Ps give in lab studies are the result of demand characteristics. Usually don't want to let researcher down and want to appear helpful/attentive. Also, when asked a question they don't know the answer to, they guess. Lab studies may not be particularly useful as they lack internal validity.
  160. 160What is anxiety?State of emotional and physical arousal, having worried thoughts, feelings of tension, increased heart rate, sweating
    Could have a negative or a positive effect
  161. 161Why might anxiety have a negative effect on recall?The physiological arousal prevents us paying attention to important cues
  162. 162Who investigated the idea of anxiety having a negative effect on recall?Johnson & Scott (1976) - effects of weapons on accuracy of EWT
  163. 163Johnson & Scott (1976): ProcedureLed Ps to believe they were taking part in a lab experiment. While in a waiting room, Ps overheard an argument in the next room.
    2 conditions:
    - Low anxiety: man walked through carrying a pen with grease on his hands
    - High anxiety: argument accompanied by sounds of glass/furniture breaking and man walked through holding paper knife covered in blood
    Ps were later asked to pick out the man from a set of 50 photos
  164. 164Johnson & Scott (1976): Findings49& in low-anxiety condition correctly identified the man
    33% did this in high-anxiety condition
    Tunnel theory (Loftus) - argues that a witness's attention narrows to focus on a weapon as it is a source of anxiety
  165. 165Why might anxiety have a positive effect on recall?Stress of witnessing a crime triggers fight-or-flight response which increases alertness and improves memory of even as we are more aware of cues in the situation
  166. 166Who investigated the idea that anxiety has a positive effect on recall?Yuille & Cutshall (1986) - real life study of a shooting in Vancouver
  167. 167Yuille & Cutshall (1986): Procedure- Shop owner shot thief dead (13 of 21 witnesses agreed to take part)
    - Interviews held 4-5 months after incident and these were compared to original police interviews
    - Accuracy determined by number of details reported
    - Also asked to rate how stressed they felt at time of incident using 7-point scale and asked if they had any emotional issues since
  168. 168Yuille & Cutshall (1986): FindingsVery accurate in accounts - little change after 5 months
    Ps who reported highest levels of stress were 88% accurate
    Less stressed were 75% accurate
  169. 169What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)?States that relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted U
  170. 170Who applied the Yerkes-Dodson Law to EWT?Deffenbacher (1983)
  171. 171Describe how the inverted-U theory is applied to EWTLower levels of anxiety = lower levels of recall accuracy
    Memory increases in accuracy as anxiety increases
    Optimum anxiety level reached = point of maximum accuracy
    Higher anxiety = less accurate    Describe how the inverted-U theory is applied to EWT
  172. 172What are 2 limitations of the inverted-U theory applied to EWT?Reductionist - only takes into account the physiological reaction
    Deffenbacher also found that heightened anxiety only has a negative effect on adults not children
  173. 173Another studyValentine & Mesout (2009)
    Real-life setting in London Dungeons
    Filled in a questionnaire to self-report anxiety and describe a person encountered there
    High anxiety: 17% correctly identified actor in a line up
    Low anxiety: 75%
  174. 174Evaluate: Effect of anxiety on EWT1. Weapon focus effect may be irrelevant
    2. Field studies sometimes lack control
    3. Ethical issues
    4. Lab studies have lower ecological validity than field studies
    5. Lab studies may cause demand characteristics
  175. 175Evaluate: Effect of anxiety on EWT 1. Weapon focus effect may be irrelevantJ&S study may have tested surprise rather than anxiety. P's could have focused on the weapon as they were surprised by what they saw. Pickel (1998): experiment in a hair salon using handgun, scissors, wallet and raw chicken. Accuracy significantly poorer in high unusualness conditions (handgun, chicken). Suggests weapons effect is due to unusualness not anxiety so does not really give insight into effects of anxiety on EWT.
  176. 176Evaluate: Effect of anxiety on EWT 2. Field studies sometimes lack controlReal life eyewitnesses are usually interviewed sometime after the event. Many factors could have affected Ps over this time which researchers have no control over (post-event discussion, media accounts) - extraneous variables which may influence accuracy of recall and may overwhelm the effects of anxiety.
  177. 177Evaluate: Effect of anxiety on EWT 3. Ethical issuesCreating anxiety in Ps is potentially unethical as it subjects Ps to psychological harm. Real-life studies are beneficial as anxiety does not need to be created as people have already witnessed the event. While this does not challenge their findings it questions the need for such research. However, benefits may outweigh costs as they are useful for comparing to less controlled field investigations.
  178. 178Evaluate: Effect of anxiety on EWT 4. Lab studies have lower ecological validity than field studiesGeneralisability
    Field studies more relevant to EWT in court cases
  179. 179Evaluate: Effect of anxiety on EWT 5. Lab studies may cause demand characteristicsMost Ps aware that they are watching a staged crime for a reason to do with the study. Therefore they will want to answer how the researcher wants them to (either get everything right or leave out lots of details) which means results do not reflect peoples responses if they were genuinely affected by anxiety.
  180. 180How can accuracy of EWT be improved?Using the cognitive interview to help people retrieve more accurate memories
  181. 181Who developed the cognitive interview and why?Fisher & Geiselman (1992) because they argued that EWT could be improved if police used better techniques based on psychological insight into how memory works
  182. 182What are the 4 main techniques used in the CI?Report everything
    Reinstate the context
    Reverse the order
    Change perspective
  183. 183What is involved in 'report everything'?Witness is encouraged to include every single detail of the event - seemingly trivial details may be important or may trigger other important memories
  184. 184What is involved in 'reinstate the context'?Witness should return to the original crime scene 'in their mind' and imagine the environment - weather, 5 senses, how they felt
    This is related to context-dependent forgetting
  185. 185What is involved in 'reverse the order'?Events should be recalled in a different chronological orders to original sequence (from middle or end). This prevents schema effects and dishonesty as it is more difficult to produce an untruthful account if it has to be reversed
  186. 186What are schema effects?People reporting their expectations of how the event will turn out rather than what actually happened
  187. 187What is meant by 'change perspective'?Witness should recall the incident from other people's point of view (e.g. another witness or the perpetrator). Disrupts effects of schema on recall.
  188. 188What principle is 'report everything' and 'reinstate the context' based on?E
  189. 189Who developed the enhanced CI?Fisher et al. (1987)
  190. 190What does the enhanced CI focus on?Social dynamics of the interaction between interviewer and witness to establish rapport, and tailoring language to suit the individual
    (E.g. eye contact)
  191. 191What are some other features of the enhanced CI?- Reducing eyewitness anxiety
    - Minimising distractions
    - Getting witness to speak slowly
    - Asking open-ended questions
  192. 192Evaluate: Cognitive interview1. Time-consuming
    2. Some elements more valuable than others
    3. Support for effectiveness
    4. Increases inaccurate info
  193. 193Evaluate: Cognitive interview 1. Time-consumingPolice may be reluctant to use it as longer than standard police interview; more time needed to establish rapport. Also requires special training, of which many forces don't provide more than a few hours. Unlikely to ever be used properly.
  194. 194Evaluate: Cognitive interview 2. Some elements more valuable than othersMilne & Bull (2002) found that each individual element is equally valuable - each used alone provided more info than a standard police interview. However, also found that combination of 'report everything' and 'reinstate the context' led to better recall than any other conditions. Shows at least 2 elements should be used - increases credibility among those who use it and more likely to be used.
  195. 195Evaluate: Cognitive interview 3. Support for effectivenessMeta-analysis by Kohnken et al (1999) combined data from 50 studies. Enhanced CI consistently provided more info than standard interview. Real practical benefits of using CI as it increases chance of criminals being charged - benefits society overall.
  196. 196Evaluate: Cognitive interview 4. Increases inaccurate infoKohnken et al. (1999) found 81% increase in correct, but also 61% increase in incorrect (false positives) when enhanced CI was compared to standard police interview. Must be used with caution.

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Beschreibung
A level Psychology (Year 1 topics) Karteikarten am Memory, erstellt von Amy Warrell am 14/05/2018.
Erstellt von
Amy Warrell · Mai 2018
Aktualisiert
15 Mai 2018
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