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- 1outline the A01 for the matching hypothesis-Murstein
relationship is formed on the basis of attractiveness - way to judge someone before getting to know them
-couples tend to be of physical attractiveness
- higher levels of attractiveness = higher expectations of potential partner
- couples who are well matched - likely to have a long and happy relationship - 2outline the computer dance study 1 by Walster-uni students brought tickets to ball
- completed questionnaire about themselves + computer made 'ideal match' (random)
- males asked whether they would take them on another date + on what basis
- found the most important factor was physical attractiveness - regardless of the males attractiveness
* doesn't support matching hypoth - as states that we match + take in consideration our own attractiveness to increase success - however ecological validity limited - 3outline murstein research supporting the matching hypothesis- used photographs of faces of steadily engaged couples + random couples formed for the basis of the photos
- real couples seen by individuals were consistently rated similar attractiveness
* support as real + successful couples had high similarity - hypothesis 1 states couples will be similar attractiveness - 4what was mursteins 3 hypotheses for the matching hypoth1. couples will be similar levels of attractiveness
2. those higher attractiveness will have higher expectations of potential partner
3. couples who are well matched with attractiveness are likely to be in happy and enduring relationship - 5outline silverman's research into the matching hypothesis- observed couples where matching had already occurred in naturalistic dating set
- 2 male +2 female observers rated each individuals
- high degree of similarity of attractiveness
- similar attractiveness - seemed happier (closer intimacy)
60% similar appeared happy
46% moderately similar happy
22% least similar seemed happy
*support as similar attractiveness the happier they were support hypoth one and hypoth 2 - 6explain Berscheid and walster research into the matching hypothesis-computer dance study 2 - brought tickets for uni ball
- in advance had to describe perfect partner
- without knowing were rated on attractiveness
- all participants asked for a partner of similar attractiveness
*support as they were looking for someone similar attractiveness to themselves - 7explain the IDA points for the matching hypothesis as an explanation for the formation of relationships*practical applications: dating agencies could match couples on their attractiveness to make successful and get more clients
* Culturally Biased: developed in the USA individualistic culture: choice over partner so Physical attractiveness is selection process
* Norm in western society: assuming same for everyone (ethnocentric)
E.G non western arranged marriage physical attractiveness less important
* Gender bias: doesn't explain differences: Takeuchi highlighted that physical attractiveness was highly valued by men - however women value less suggesting men can compensate with different qualities - 8outline the filter model-Kerckhoff and Davis: develop through 3 stages disregard unsuitable partners
- use filters to narrow down from field of availables to field of desirables
*FILTER 1: SOCIAL/ DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES: mix/ socialize with people similar to us + have less encounters with people from other places these = field of availables
* FILTER 2: SIMILARITY OF VARIABLES
-applied when people socialize/ closer
- if share beliefs, values/ have similar hobbies = convo flows
- if have different beliefs, values/ different interest = convo may not flow + may spend less time together
*FILTER 3: COMPLIMENTARY OF EMOSHIONAL NEEDS
- couple almost established
- focus on how well they compliment each others needs
- opposites attract: e.g dominant person fits with someone who likes to be dominated - 9outline Kerckohoff and Davis research for the filter model as an explanation for the formation of relationships-longitudinal study couples of 18 month
- completed survey questionnaires over 7months
- reporting attitude similarity and personality traits
- found that attitude similarity most important up to 18 months
- then became psychological compatibility + ability to meet needs most important
*support social demographic filter + complimentary of emotional needs
also supports the idea that its a filtering process - 10outline Sprecher's research into the filter model-couples who were matched in physical attractiveness and social back ground and interests were more likely to develop a long term relation ship
*support Attitudes + values filter - suggests important to get past that stage to develop relationship - 11outline Gruber Baldini et al research into the filter modellongitudinal study of couples over the age of 21 - those similar education and age at the start of the relationship were more likely to stay together
*support social demographic filter - 12outline the IDA for the filter model*practical applications: encourage dating agencies to use the filter model to make them more successful
* cultural bias: cannot explain all relationships
non western arranged marriages: filter one may still apply but don't get to filter partners out at filter 2 + 3 - 13what are the implications of researching the formation of relationship*a lot of research uses self report: which may reduce validity as want to appear as though they are in perfect relationship - reduce validity of the research
*temporal validity: all done at different times - expectations and roles in relationships may have changed - 14what are the two theories for the maintenance of relationshipsEquity theory
social exchange theory - 15outline the A01 for social exchange theory-Homans: weigh up cost and benefits before deciding on action - consider actual, potential past, present and future
- human - notes that rational economic decision - attracted to those with rewards
satation: something short supply appreciate more
- relationship involve exchange resources - whether relationship is developed is dependent on how mutually beneficial it is
rewards: anything pos cost any thing neg
women: intimacy + self growth
men: sexual gratification
Thibaut and Kelly: minimax strategy - relationship maintained if rewards outweigh costs
whether regarded satisfactory dependent on
comparison level: standard which relationship are judged, based on passed experiences
comparison level for alternatives: whether you believe alternative relationship that could provide better alternative
*likely to change over time: different experiences + changes to current relationship+ affected by things self esteem - 16outline the research evidence for the social exchange theory*Resbult - students questionnares every few weeks over 7 months
- found satisfaction, alternatives, investment, all predicted how committed couples were + whether lasted - support focus on cost benefit analysis +CL
* Floyd et al: found commitment develops when couples satisfied + felt rewarded + when perceive equally/ more attractive alternatives not available
- support shows benefit + CLA - 17outline the criticisms of the social exchange theory*Clarke and mills
2 types of relationships: communal no expectation the benefit is repaid
exchange: benefits given in response to benefits received
- weakens as highlights that only explain certain relationships
* cannot operationalize rewards + costs as subjective = cannot be tested empirically - 18outline the IDA points for the social exchange theory*potential cultural bias: if generalized moghaddam et al: western + non western relationship are dominated by different concerns and features - e,g some religions act as a constraint for divorce : cannot explain/ be generalized
* practical application: behavioral and marital therapy based on SET aim to increase ration pos to neg interactions
- suggests valid if works in real life - 19outline the equity theory A01 WALSTER ET AL- couples keep an eye on what each other receive + put in to relationship
- equity: we consider fair + satisfactory if what we gain from relationship reflects what we put in
- ie if one person puts in more they should receive more out
- predicts over/ under benefit wont be happy/ maintained
* under benefit: feel exploited/ taken advantage of = anger/ resentment
* over benefit = uncomfortable/ guilt
- if relationship short duration may end
if been together time: have motivation to fix relationship due to time and money each have invested
- fix relationship by: reducing inputs
increasing outputs - 20outline Van Yperen and buunk research into equity theory*longitudinal study recruited by ad in paper
- 86% married rest cohabited
- obtained equity score: using hatfeild global measurement of satisfaction
65% m+w believed equitable
25% m felt over benefitted
similar amount W felt under ben
1 year later asked about satisfaction - those who believed equitable stage 1 (most satisfied)
over benefited stage 2
under benefited stage 3
* support over benefitted and under benefited least satisfied - 21outline other research into the equity theoryHatfeild et al
500 college students judge how equitable their relationship was - after 3 months students inequitable relationship more likely to end
- support inequitable relationship + short duration little motivation to save - 22explain gender bias as an ida point for equity theory- reflects mens point of view better
may lead to individuals of other gender portrayed unfairly
- Prins : women in inequitable relationship more likely to engage in extra marital affairs to give what they perceive more equitable balance = selfish image of women - could be wrongly applied
- Kahn men focus on equity women want as much as they can - suggest that think differently/ different expectations - 23outline the A01 for rollie and Duck model6 processes - each with distinct purpose - to move to the next you have to reach the threshold:
1: breakdown - threshold 'I cant stand this' : one partner dissatisfied if sig
progresses to next stage
2: intrapsychic : 'i'd be justified in withdrawing'
- characterized resentment +withdraw
-dissatisfied partner focuses on faults - may re evauluate/ look for alternatives
3: Dyadic ' I mean it'
- begin talk about their problems
- may = reconsolidation accepts dissatisfied view
- talk constructivelty = may stay / leave
4: social process: ' its now inevitable'
- breakup aired - public support given
- denigration partner: I never liked them anyway + scapegoating
- social impliations - children sorted out
5) Grave dressing: 'time to get new life'
- relationship dies: account for why
- stories developed and differernt stories told to different people
6) resurrection process: address themselves
- recreate social values - what they want from a relationship/ what they want to avoid
- young adults end relationship highlight new one - 24outline research into rollie and duck modelDuck: found stories constructed so speaker seems: - open to new relationship
- not too critical of other decencies
- willing to work for relationship
*supports grave dressing specifically
Tashiro and Frazier: real life observations of undergrads who had recently broke up with partners
- reported emotional distress and personal growth
- reported that the break up gave them ideas of what they wanted from a relationship
*support resurrection and grave dressing - 25however what is the problem with research for the rollie and Duck model?Duck: notes that studied retrospectively = not always being accurate report of what actually happened
- they very early stages of dissatisfaction not reported - 26what are the practical applications of Rollie and Duck modelinteventions focusing on establishing what stage the individual is at = effective couples counciling
- 27what is the culturally bias point for rollie and duckcriticized for being culturally bias:
only applies to certain groups in the western society = cannot be applied universally
- also relationships are dynamic + dependent on the individual - may not go through stages at the same time/ same order - 28what does three things does the evolutionary theory focus on as a cause for a breakdown of relationship*focus on factors threaten reproductive success
* excess differs between men and women
- infidelity
- infertility
-lack economic success - 29outline the A01 evolutionary explanation for the break down of relationships Infidelity- more serious if a women cheat for the man + more likely for the man to leave
- as cuckoldry may = him wasting his resources + prevents his genes being passed on
- females have more genetic certainty if man cheats may end up diverting resources which risks off spring but not as serious - 30outline the A01 evolutionary explanation for the break down of relationships Infertilityserious for both - if either infertilie genes cannot be passed out
- infertile individual who can reproduce should find a partner + successfully pass genes on - 31outline the A01 evolutionary explanation for the break down of relationships lack economic success- men cannot provide worse for the female
- females look for partners who are able to provide for them and their offspring
- females need to ensure her off spring survive as she has fewer opportunities to pass on genes - 32outline fishers research into the evolutionary explanation for the breakdown of a relationship- 31 years of data 45 countries UN study of 45 societies
- found 31% of divorces occur when there are no children (assume infertile)
- 26% when one child
- 19% when 2 children
* supports infertility as it suggest if infertile go find another partner - 33explain the limitations of fishers researchdoesn't show the in depth reason for divorce - just assumes that its because of infertility: whereas it could be other factors such as staying together for the childrens benefit
- 34outline Betzig research into the evolutionary explanation for the breakdown of relationships- cross cultural study into the reasons for divorce: using human resources area file
- standardized cross cultural sample of 186 societies rep of world cultures
found:
1. infidelity 2. infertility
3. personality 4. economics
5 in laws 6. absence
7. health
* 3 ev explanations are in top 5 + in all cultures = strengthening further - 35outline Bunnk et al research into the evolutionary explanation for the breakdown of a relationship-cross cultural: Netherlands, US Germany
- men in US show greater signs of psychological and physiological distress to sexual than emosh infidelity
- women show more to emosh
- highlights the gender differences in the extent - 36name 2 types of infidelityemotional infidelity: emotionally closer/ having strong emotional feelings for someone other than romantic partner
sexual infidelity: having sex with someone other than your emotional partner - 37explain the IDA points for the evolutionary explanation for the break down of relationships- cannot explain CULTURAL DIFFERENCES - in some societies/ religion relationship cannot end in divorce - so doesn't make evolutionary sense as may prevent further offspring
- the cultural difference also highlights ALPHA GENDER BIAS: some societies its acceptable for man to break up with women but not acceptable for women
*problem as undermines gender equality - 38what is sexual selectionevolutionary process - affects the traits that influence individuals ability to attract/ choose a mate
- e.g peacock tail
= implications for the formation maintence and breakdown of relationships - 39what are the three predictions of sexual selection- women will be choosier than men showing less interest in short term sexual liaisons
- men are attracted to signs of fertility
- women attracted to qualities that suggest willingness and ability to invest in off spring e.g resources and status - 40outline the A01 for the prediction women will be choosier than men showing less of an interest in short term sexual liaisonsadaptive- because in the EEA sex is likely to = pregnancy - by being choosier they are able to select the partner with best possible genes
- increases females chances of reproductive success as genetically healthy baby likely to survive - 41outline the research into the the prediction women will be choosier than men showing less of an interest in short term sexual liaisons*Clarke and hatfield:
American college campus attractive stranger approached individuals asked to:
- go out with them
- go to their house with them
- have sex with them
50% both males and females agreed date
6% F 69% M agreed to go back to house
0% females 75% M agreed to sex
women less interested in casual relationships
+ real life setting = high ecological validity - 42outline gueguen replication of Clarke and hatfield studyreplication in france:
confederates of different attractive levels approached individuals + asked if they would have sex with them
- 83% M agreed with attractive F
- 60% M agreed with average F
3% of F agree with attractive M
0 F agreed with average man
highlights that women choosier + less casual sex - 43outline the A01 of the prediction: men will be attracted to indicators of fertility- prefer the waist to hip ratio 0.7 as indicates youth and fertility
* adaptive as it distinguishes between pre pubertal + signals they aren't already pregnant = adaptive as increases their chance of passing on their genes - without wasting resources/ time on the woman - 44outline the A01 for the prediction: women are attracted to qualities that suggest willingness and ability to invest in off springadaptive because it increases the survival of off spring and genes being passed on successfully - which is important for women as have fewer chances to reproduce
- 45outline the research by buss into the prediction: women will be attracted to qualities that suggest willingness to invest in off springcross cultural study: investigating the priorities of male and females - 10,000 people 37 cultures -
- men more likely to rate youth and good looks
- females wider range: financial prospects, ambition, older age, emotional maturity - 46outline dunbar and wayforth research on the prediction that women are attracted to qualities that suggest willingness and ability to invest in off spring- content analysis of lonely heart ads
-M indicated their material wealth 1.7 more than W
- W asked for wealth 4.5X more than M
- requests for men to be wealthy were women prime reproductive age 20-39
- W twice likely to describe physical attractiveness in description than men
- suggests courtship selection was based on sexual selection - 47explain the IDA point about gender bias for sexual selection theoryAlpha bias: exaggerates the differences between males and women
having negative practical implications as suggest men shallow - look for looks
and females only interested in money and resources
socially problematic as may = stereotypes/ exaggerate stereo types further - 48however what did Buss find that goes against the idea that sexual selection is alpha bias - what is the consequence of this findingBuss found men favour resources
women favour attractiveness
however both favour intelligence and kindness above both finance and attractiveness
= weakens theory as highlights similarities that are about finance and looks (both evolutionary adaptive) - 49what is the IDA point about sexual selection being deterministicanti women agenda - legitimises immoral male behaviour such as infidelity (cheating)
males can argue that they don't mean to its determined by their genes
- doesn't invalidate the theory instead just socially problematic - 50what is parental investment (a01)investment in individual offspring which as a consequence increases their offspring survival chances - at the cost of reducing ability to invest in other offspring
- 51A01 - what are the factors which determine how much parental investment someone gives?- how genetically close they are
- how certain they are of their genetic relation: fertilisation internal maternal certainty, but less paternal - mother certain
- possible number of offspring can be produced: females produce fewer gametes = less off spring and have high dependency of investment as have to be carried for 9 months + breastfed ect
males more as don't have to commit - 52A01 - what do males invest in offspring what do females invest in offspringMales; time invested in women
sperm + sex
women: eggs + sex
9 months carrying baby + give birth
look after baby until they are old enough to care for themselves
- hunter gatherer communities breast fed until 4 - 53why do females invest more? (A01 parental investment theory)- fewer gametes = fewer chances to reproduce
- shorter reproductive life: menopause
- internal fertilization = genetic certainty = no risk of cuckoldry (putting resources into child no genetically theirs)
- humans have larger brains in comparison to other animals = longer dependency - 54why is it adaptive for females to invest more? why is it adaptive for men to invest less?* women: - fewer chances - invest to increase chance
- reduced investment would put the infant at risk and genes may not be passed on
* men: - increased investment may = waste of time + resources (cockholdry) - genes not passed on and the other reproductive chances missed - 55outline Geary support for the parental investment theory what is the limitation of the research- meta review - found in all studies fathers spend less time interacting with their children
no society were the role is completely revered - but that would make sense for men to invest more if the ratio to women to man was lower - 56outline Euler and Weitzel research supporting investment theory- asked German adults to rate on 7 point scale how much each grandparent cared for them until age 7
- found MoMo cared most
MoFa second most
FaMo 3rd + FaFa least
- MoMo has 100% certainty daughters hers and grandchild is daughters
- FaMo FaFa less certain don't know if grandson is theirs
FaFa - double uncertainty invest least
MoFa trust MoMo + knows daughter had grandson = more certainty - 57what is andersons contradictory evidence against the parental investment theory- looked at mens willingness to pay college eductation fees
- most willing to pay for child living at home with their mother
- didn't differ between own child and a child from new partners old relationship
* against: highlights genetic certainty that not his child - but no difference - not saving resources - 58what could explain the behavior of the father towards step children in Anderson et al's studyinvesting to prove to new partner that hes a good provider promoting future mating possibilities
- 59what is a limitation of all evolutionary theoriesthey are unfalsifiable - cannot prove them wrong = scientifically they aren't creditable
- 60what is the IDA point about gender for the sexual selection- alpha bias as it exaggerates differences
.e.g women spend significantly more time investing in their children than men
- problematic as it leads to stereotyping and discrimination e.g women only able good at being house wife + only good at domestic jobs - 61what is the IDA point about the parental investment theory being deterministiccould lead to men justifying their behavior/ not being involved or supporting their child because they its in their genes
* doesn't undermine theory but is socially sensitive - 62what are the 2 theories of early experiencesocial learning theory and Bowlby theory of attachment
- 63outline the A01 of Bowlby's attachment theory - just maternal-attachment - life long phenomena - determines future + quality of relationships
METERNAL SENSITIVITY; attachment type dependent on the warmth and how loving the mother responds:
- secure: responds lovingly and warm
insecure avoidant: ignore and don't meet needs
- insecure resistant: the care is inconsistent = sometimes good sometimes bad - 64the maternal hypothesis then leads to ..... which then leads to ........AINSOWRTHS ATTACHMENT TYPE:
insecure resistant: cling to mother, upset on return and separation
insecure avoidant: don't cry/ avoid people
secure: cry when mum left + happy on return - 65the attachment type then leads to whatthe internal working model:
schema which creates the expectation of what relationship involves - becomes the basis for future relationships
- secure: trust, high self worth - happy in relationship sad when ends but then look for another
- insecure avoidant: self sufficient believe relationship not worth having - few relationship + distant
- insecure avoidant: clingy obsessive, jelous, need constant reminder
The continuity hypoth suggests that the internal working model is continued throughout their life - 66outline hazan and shaver research into Bowlby theory of attachment method- readers of rocky mountain news - complete a questionnaire about attitudes of love
3 parts: assess love style
details past + current relationships
measuring attachment style and history
read 3 paragraphs + chose the one best describing previous relationship/ them
avoidant: uncomfortable being close
secure: happy to get close
resistant: others reluctant to get as close as I want them to - 67findingsanalyzed 600 found the distribution was similar to infancy
56% adults secure
24% insecure avoidant
20% insecure resistant
Securely attached trusted others+ satisfied with relationship
Avoidant: uncomfortable being close + hard to trust
resistant: likely to be obsessive/ possessive ' over ready for love' - 68outline other support for Bowlby attachment theorySENCHACK AND LEONARD: resistant - men acquired marriage licenses after short courtship in comparison to secure/ avoidant - assessed attachment style by looking at how quickly they got married
- support resistant attachment require conformation - which may be through marriage
Waters: retested adults for their attachment type 20 years after they were first assessed at 12 months
- found stability 72% of adults received the same attachment (however possible bad due to ppt attrition) - 69outline the studies againstLEWIS ET AL longitudinal study, found no strong evidence for consistency change occurred most with negative life events e.g parental divorce - not linked to any specific attachment time
QUINTON AND RUTTER women who had a range of early experiences developed secure attachment type if they had positive school experience - 70IDA determinism for Bowlby attachment type ssuggests attachment type = clear prediction for future relationship
- problematic may = self fulfilling prophecy = individuals behaving in a specific way due to the label been given
- Lewis highlights not the case and attachment can change over life - due to life events e.g parental divorce - suggesting not inevitable
- highlights theory limited can only explain attachment in those whos parents aren't divorced + questions that Bowlby internal working model is only explanation - 71outline practical application offered by Bowlby theoryearly diagnosis of post natal depression+ offer parental classes ensuring the best care is being given
- teacher training to ensure a safe and positive environment which rutter and Quinton highlighted to be important in developing secure attachment type - 72outline the A01 for the social learning theory as an effect of early learning experiences on relationshipobservation: observe significant others such as parents holding hands - identify the parents as role models
retain the representation as remember them to be happy = creating a mental schema of this as a cause of happiness
motivation: vicarious reinforcement - see parents happy = motivated
then reproduce the bahviour - 73Ao2 research evidence for social learning theory: Gray and SteinbergGrey and Steinberg: adolescents raised in enviorment where parents treat them with warmth and are emotionally available = better prepared for relationship and their own intimacy
- support as highlights they are given the opportunity to copy the behaviours directed towards them - supporting as the directly observe, become motivated and imitate the behavior - 74Moeller and statin- boys who had affection with their father reported greater satisfaction in their own adult relationship - father taught them how to behave
- however mother and daughter relationship didn't have the same effect
- support as son saw the father as a role model + felt they were able to identify with him - however support limited as there was no direct observations made - 75outline russel and finnie support:observed pre school children with mothers when introduced to a unfamiliar situations
children who were classed as popular - mother who suggest strategies to help children communicate with other children + ease them into the group
- 'neglected children' mothers who helped them by showing them what toys to play with - but didn't help them interact
- support SLT as the children reproduced the behaviors the mother taught them - however no direct link to adult hood as not longitudinal - 76outline the IDA for social learning theorynature nurture: ignores nature (biological) .eg Hagans temperament hypothesis - children can have innate attachment which then determines how they behave in adult relationships
Cultural: good at explaining cultural differences - e.g arranged marriages if norm they internalize - 77A01 for Cultural differences (general)culture: set of norms and values distinct to an institution, organization or group
individualistic: I rather than we
individual/ personal gains
western societies
Collectivist: we rather than I
eastern societies
interdependent - 78what are the differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures in their relationshipsIndividualistic:
- temporary = higher divorce - as based on individuals and their individual - opportunity and gains
- individual choice
- focused around love
Collectivist:
- alliance with family members rather than couple
- greater expectation
- based around the idea that love can be learnt
- lower divorce - religion often acts as constrain
- less choice - arranged marriages ect - 79outline the 3 cultural transmissions* social learning: observe other in societies + consequence of the behavior internalize
* socialization: people raised differently = different norms and values + expectations of what a relationship should include - could lead to ethnocentrism as compare culture against your own
* conformity: conformist to other people in society - to be seen as normal 'normative social influence - desire to fit in
- get advice of others = informational social influence
- - 80EXAM TIPS- only outline 1 / 2 of the cultural transmission and develop upon a specific part of a relationship
* socialization - if we are socialized in to believing that marriage is based around love we believe anything different is wrong - then talk about ethnocentrism e..t - 81Zaidi and Shuraydia research supportMuslim born in Canada + questioned about relationships - specifically arranged marriages
- favored western marriages with greater choice
- fathers resistant to change and wanted the daughters to have a traditional arranged marriage
- support as they were influenced by the culture and the norms of their society - 82le vine et alasked about attitudes towards marriage without love in 11 countries - asked would you marry someone with all the right qualities if you weren't in love with them
- higher % of collectivist said yes
49% in india said yes
3.5% uk (individualistic)
* support as they had different importance of love - collectivist focus is on us rather than I - 83Moore and leung:importance of love - whether more important in collectivist or individualistic cultures
- questioned 212 anglo Australian undergrads - born in Uk, New Zealand, Australia
- 106 Chinese Australian undergrads
61% Anglo Australian in relationship
38% Chinese students in relationships
- suggesting that the Chinese valued love and were romantic as fewer were in relationship - against the theory - suggest similarities - 84Temporal shift when talking about cultural influence in relationshipemphasis on geographical difference between collectivist and individualistic = misleading can lead to ethnocentrism
- western cultures were once collectivist
Kephart original study (then replicated by le vine) found 35% of men said yes to marrying someone if they had all the qualities without love bt 75% of women said yes
Levine then found that only 3.5% of individualistic cultures (UK ) said yes
- suggest through economic development and media influences the collectivist cultures will expand and urbananise - already seeing less influence as arranged marriages are becoming more flexible - 85—
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- A-Level psychology unit 3 (relationships ) Karteikarten am Ohne Titel, erstellt von rose9888 am 12/03/2016.
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