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Memory

Alpha Wolfrik Psychology AS - Level Englisch 61 Karten

Karten in diesem Stapel (61)

  1. 1Define CodingThe way information is stored.
  2. 2Short-term memory Capacity Coding DurationCapacity-between 5 and 9 items (7+-2)
    Coding- usually acoustic
    Duration-18-30 seconds
  3. 3Long-term memory Capacity Coding DurationCapacity-Unlimited
    Coding-Semantic
    Duration-Up to a lifetime
  4. 4Key study into coding into STM and LTMCODING STM & LTM
    Baddeley research 4 conditions: Semantically similar/dissimilar
    Acoustically similar/dissimilar
    - Baddeley found that immediate recall with acoustically similar words was worse so STM is acoustic
    and later recall was worse with semantically dissimilar words LTM is semantic.
  5. 5Key research into capacity of STMCAPACITY OF STM (MILLER)
    -MILLER found that the span of the STM is about 7+-2 but can be improved by chunking- grouping sets of numbers/letters into meaningful units.
    -Jacobs- Research consisted of reading out 4 digits and increasing the number of digits until participant could not immediately recall them in correct order. Digit span around 7 letters 9 numbers. Reflects Miller's results.
  6. 6Research into DURATION OF STM- Peterson & Peterson found that duration of STM is about 18 - 30 seconds in a study where students were given consonant syllables to remember and a 3-digit number to count back from to prevent maintenance.
  7. 7Research into DURATION OF LTMBahrick et al, studied nearly 400 Americans ageing from 17 to 74.
    - photo recognition: participants were tested on recognition with 50 pictures of their high school year book.
    -Free recall- participants listed names from their graduation.
    Participants tested after nearly 50 years after their graduation had high recall (70%) suggesting that LTM duration is very long.
  8. 8EVALUATIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION OF MEMORY. 1 of 4 prompts (coding of STM & LTM)P- (lim) Baddeley no meaningful material.
    E- no personal meaning to participants.
    E- processing meaningful information, may use semantic coding STM tasks.
    L- results limited application. generalising.
  9. 9EVALUATIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION OF MEMORY. 1 of 4 full (coding of STM & LTM)P- A limitation of Baddeley's study is that it didn't use meaningful material.
    E- The words used in the study have no personal meaning to the participants.
    E- When processing more meaningful information, people may use semantic coding even for STM tasks.
    L- This means that the results of this study have limited application. We should be cautious about generalising the findings to different kinds of memory task.
  10. 10EVALUATIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION OF MEMORY. 2 of 4 prompts (capacity of STM)P- (lim) Miller overestimated capacity STM.
    E- Cowan reviewed other research.
    E- found capacity STM about 4 chunks.
    L- lower end of Miller's estimate (5 items) is more appropriate than 7 items.
  11. 11EVALUATIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION OF MEMORY. 2 of 4 full (capacity of STM)P- A limitation of Miller's research is it may have overestimated the capacity of STM.
    E- For example, Cowan reviewed other research.
    E- and found that the capacity of the STM was only about 4 chunks.
    L- This suggests that the lower end of Miller's estimate (5 items) is more appropriate than 7 items.
  12. 12EVALUATIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION OF MEMORY. 3 of 4 prompts (duration of STM)P- (lim) Peterson X2 artificial stimulus.
    E- memorise consonant syllables not reflect real life memory activities
    E- lacked external validity.
    L- meaningless things such as phone numbers.isn't totally irrelevant.
  13. 13EVALUATIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION OF MEMORY. 3 of 4 full (duration of STM)P- A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is the use of artificial stimulus.
    E- Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real life memory activities where what we try to remember is meaningful.
    E- So it could be argued that this study lacked external validity.
    L- On the other hand, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things such as phone numbers. So the study isn't totally irrelevant.
  14. 14EVALUATIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION OF MEMORY. 4 of 4 prompts (duration of LTM)P- (Strength) Bahrick's external validity.
    E- Real-life meaningful memories
    E- meaningless pictures recall rates were lower.
    L- confounding variables are not controlled participants looked yearbook prior study not true reflection of LTM.
  15. 15EVALUATIONS FOR RESEARCH INTO CODING, CAPACITY AND DURATION OF MEMORY. 4 of 4 full (duration of LTM)P- A strength of Bahrick's study is that it has high external validity.
    E- Real-life meaningful memories (peoples faces and names) were studied.
    E- When lab studies were conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates were lower.
    L- The downside of such real- life research is that confounding variables are not controlled such as the fact that Bahrick's participants may have looked at their yearbook prior to the study which means that the results may not have been a true reflection of LTM.
  16. 16MULTISTORE MODEL OF MEMORY (MSM) 1968Theorised by Atkinson & Shiffrin
    The MSM describes how information flows through the memory system. Memory is made of three separate stores linked by processing.
  17. 17Describe SR coding,capacity,duration.Sensory Register (SR) A stimulus from the environment (someone talking) passes into the SR along with lots of other sights, sounds etc. This part of the memory is not one store but five, one for each sense.
    Duration- very brief - less than half a second.
    Capacity- high
    Coding- depends on the sense- visual (iconic),
    auditory (echoic).
  18. 18Describing stimulus transfer from SR to STMTransfer from SR to STM. Little of what goes into the SR passes further into the memory system- needs attention to be paid to it.
    STM is a limited capacity and duration store.
    Duration about 18-30 seconds unless the information is rehearsed.
    Capacity- between 5-9 (7+-2) items before some forgetting occurs.
    Coding- acoustic.
  19. 19TRANSFER FROM STM TO LTMMaintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves. We can keep information in the STM as long as it is rehearsed. If it is rehearsed enough it gets transferred to the LTM.
    LTM is a permanent memory store and when we want to recall materials from this store it has to be transferred back to the STM by a process called retrieval.
    LTM-Duration-potentially up to a lifetime
    Capacity-potentially unlimited.
    Coding-tends to be semantic.
  20. 20Evaluations for MSM 1 of 4 promptsP- (Strength) MSM supported by research showing STM LTM different.
    E-Baddeley tend to mix up words acoustically similar using STMs. mix up words similar meanings LTMs.
    E- coding in STM is acoustic and LTM it is semantic.
    L- two memory stores are separate and independent.
  21. 21Evaluations for MSM 1 of 4 FullP- The MSM is supported by research showing STM and LTM are different.
    E- Baddeley found that we tend to mix up words that sound acoustically similar when using our STMs. But we mix up words that have similar meanings when we use our LTMs.
    E- This clearly shows that coding in STM is acoustic and LTM it is semantic.
    L- This supports MSM's view that these two memory stores are separate and independent.
  22. 22Evaluations for MSM 2 of 4 promptsP-(lim) evidence of more than one type of STM.
    E- KF, a patient with amnesia. His STM for digits poor read to him (acoustic). recall better when read to himself.
    E- The MSM states one type of STM ( a unitary store). But KF's study suggests 1 short-term store visual & 1 auditory information.
    L- WMM separate stores.
  23. 23Evaluations for MSM 2 of 4 FullA limitation of the MSM is that evidence suggests there is more than one type of STM.
    Researchers have studied KF, a patient with amnesia. His STM for digits was poor when they read them out loud to him. But his recall was much better when he read the digits to himself.
    The MSM states that there is only one type of STM ( a unitary store). But KF's study suggests that there must be one short-term store to process visual information and another to process auditory information.
    The working memory model is a better explanation for this finding as it has separate stores.
  24. 24Evaluations for MSM 3 of 4 promptsP- (lim) MSM research uses artificial materials.
    E- participants to recall digits, letters and sometimes words. Peterson & Peterson consonant syllables no meaning to the participants.
    E- Meaningful memories
    L- MSM lacks external validity, research reflect meaningless material in lab testing, not everyday life.
  25. 25Evaluations for MSM 3 of 4 FullP- A limitation is that the research that supports the MSM uses artificial materials.
    E- Researchers often asked participants to recall digits, letters and sometimes words. Peterson & Peterson even used consonant syllables which have no meaning to the participants.
    E- In everyday life we form memories related to useful things such as people's faces, names, places etc.
    L- This suggests the MSM lacks external validity, as research findings may reflect how memory works with meaningless material in lab testing, but it does not reflect how memory mainly works in everyday life.
  26. 26Evaluations for MSM 4 of 4 PromptsP- (lim) MSM oversimplifies LTM.
    E- research evidence LTM unitary store.
    E- one LTM store for (semantic), (episodic).
    L- limited not reflect different types of LTM.
  27. 27Evaluations for MSM 4 of 4 FullL- A further limitation of the MSM is that it oversimplifies the LTM.
    E- There is a lot of research evidence that the LTM is not a unitary store.
    E-We have one LTM store for memories of facts about the world (semantic), and a different one for memories of an early birthday party (episodic).
    L- The MSM is limited because it does not reflect these different types of LTM.
  28. 28TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY EPISODIC MEMORY 1 of 3EPISODIC MEMORY
    Stores events from our lives like episodes. Episodic memories are complex. They are time stamped- you remember when they happened. They involve several elements-people, location, objects.
    You have to make a conscious effort to recall them.
  29. 29TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY SEMANTIC MEMORY 2 of 3SEMANTIC MEMORY
    Stores our knowledge of the world.
    They are not time-stamped.
    It is less personal and more about the knowledge we all share.
  30. 30TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY PROCEDURAL MEMORY 3 of 3PROCEDURAL MEMORY
    Stores memories for actions and skills.
    Memories of how we do things.
    Recall occurs without awareness or conscious effort.
  31. 31EVALUATIONS OF TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY. 1 of promptsP- (strength) episodic memory supported case study evidence.
    E- Clinical studies of amnesia difficulty of recalling events pasts (episodic memories)
    E- semantic memory unaffected e.g. HM did not recall stroking a dog...
    L- different memory stores in the LTM one can be damaged but leave the others unaffected.
  32. 32EVALUATIONS OF TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY. 1 of fullP- A strength is that episodic memory is supported by case study evidence.
    E- Clinical studies of amnesia (HM & Clive Wearing) showed both had difficulty of recalling events that had happened to them in the pasts (episodic memories)
    E- But their semantic memory had been relatively unaffected e.g. HM did not recall stroking a dog earlier in the day but knew what a dog was.
    L- This supports the view that there are different memory stores in the LTM as one can be damaged but leave the others unaffected.
  33. 33EVALUATIONS OF TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY. 2 of promptsP- (strength) brain scan studies different LTM stores.
    E- Tulving complete various tasks brains scanned PET
    E- Episodic/semantic memories different sections prefrontal cortex.
    L- empirical evidence types of LTM.
  34. 34EVALUATIONS OF TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY. 2 of fullP- A strength is that brain scan studies show that there are different LTM stores.
    E- Tulving had his participants complete various tasks while having their brains scanned by a PET scanner.
    E- Episodic and semantic memories were in different sections of the prefrontal cortex.
    L- This gives us empirical evidence for the different types of LTM.
  35. 35EVALUATIONS OF TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY. 3 of promptsP- (strength) identifying types of LTM real life applications.
    E- Psychologists target. improve people's lives.
    E- episodic memories improved in older people cognitive impairments. Training led to improvements
    L- benefit of distinguishing. treatments to be developed.
  36. 36EVALUATIONS OF TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY. 3 of fullP- A strength of identifying different types of LTM stores is that is has real life applications.
    E- Psychologists can target certain kinds of memory in order to improve people's lives.
    E- Researchers found that episodic memories can be improved in older people with mild cognitive impairments. Training led to improvements (compared to a control group)
    L- This highlights the benefit of distinguishing between different types of LTM - it allows specific treatments to be developed.
  37. 37EVALUATIONS OF TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY. 4 of promptsP- (lim) problems with clinical evidence.
    E- Evidence based on clinical cases
    E- lack of control location of the brain damage or personality variables).
    L- generalise from these case studies
  38. 38EVALUATIONS OF TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY. 4 of fullP- A limitation is that there are problems with clinical evidence.
    E- Evidence is often based on clinical cases (HM & Clive Wearing) about what happens when memory is damaged.
    E- There is a serious lack of control of different variables in these studies (cannot control the precise location of the brain damage or personality variables).
    L- So it is difficult to generalise from these case studies to determine the exact nature of of LTM.
  39. 39EVALUATIONS OF WMM 1 OF 4 PROMPTSP- (lim) lack of clarity of the CE.
    E- Cognitive psychologists e CE is unsatisfactory
    E- The CE giving 'attention' to certain tasks. separate components.
    L- WMM hasn't been fully explained.
  40. 40EVALUATIONS OF WMM 1 OF 4 fullP- A limitation of the WMM is the lack of clarity of the CE.
    E- Cognitive psychologists suggests that the CE is unsatisfactory and doesn't really explain anything.
    E- The CE should be more clearly specified than just being simply giving 'attention' to certain tasks. Some psychologists believe it may consist of separate components.
    L- This means that the WMM hasn't been fully explained.
  41. 41EVALUATIONS OF WMM 2 OF 4 promptsP- (strength) dual task support visuo spatial sketchpad.
    E- (Baddeley) more difficulty doing two visual tasks than doing a visual and verbal same time.
    E- both visual tasks compete for the same limited resources. no competition.
    L- The MSM can't explain this.
  42. 42EVALUATIONS OF WMM 2 OF 4 fullP- A strength is that dual task performance studies support the visuo spatial sketchpad.
    E- Baddeley found participants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks (tracking a light and describing the letter F) than doing a visual and verbal task at the same time.
    E- The greater difficulty is because both visual tasks compete for the same limited resources. When doing a verbal and visual task there is no competition.
    L- Therefore dual task performance activity provides evidence for the existence of the visuo spatial sketchpad. The MSM can't explain this.
  43. 43EVALUATIONS OF WMM 3 OF 4 promptsP- (strength) case study of KF supports separate STM stores.
    E- KF had poor STM ability for verbal information visual information normally
    E- phonological loop damaged but other areas were left intact.
    L- separate visual and acoustic stores.
  44. 44EVALUATIONS OF WMM 3 OF 4 fullP- A strength is that the case study of KF supports supports separate STM stores.
    E- KF had brain damage. He had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information normally (difficulty with sounds but could recall letters/digits)
    E- So his phonological loop was damaged but other areas were left intact.
    L- This suggests that there are separate visual and acoustic stores.
  45. 45EVALUATIONS OF WMM 4 OF 4 promptsP- (strength) brain scan evidence.
    E- tasks varying in difficulty involving the CE while having a brain scan.
    E- Activity in the prefrontal cortex increased along with difficulty of the task.
    L- This shows a visual representation of the CE in the brain.
  46. 46EVALUATIONS OF WMM 4 OF 4 fullP- A further strength is that there is brain scan evidence.
    E- Participants completed tasks varying in difficulty involving the CE while having a brain scan.
    E- Activity in the prefrontal cortex increased along with the difficulty of the task. This supports the WMM as the demands of the CE increase it has to work harder to fulfil its function.
    L- This shows that there is a visual representation of the CE in the brain.
  47. 47Define interferenceInterference: one memory disturbs the ability to recall another. This might result in forgetting or distorting one or the other or both. This is more likely to happen if the memories are similar.
  48. 48Forgetting: interference Define Proactive interferenceProactive interference:
    Previously learnt information interferes with the new information you are trying to store.
    For example: you have difficulties learning the names of the students in your psychology class instead you keep remembering the names of the students in your maths group last year.
  49. 49Forgetting: interference Define Retroactive interferenceRetroactive interference:
    A new memory interferes with older ones.
    For example: you have difficulties remembering the names of the students in your maths group last year because you learnt the names of your psychology class this year.
  50. 50THE EFFECTS OF SIMILARITY IN INTERFERENCEInterference is worsened when memories are similar. This is shown in McGeoch et al study.
    They studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of materials.
    Participants had to learn a list of words and were given another set of words that varied between the six groups.
    When the participants were asked to recall the first word list, recall was worse from the people who had synonyms for their second list. This suggests that interference is strongest when memories are similar.
  51. 51Evaluations for forgetting:interference 1 of promptsP- (strength) gathered it from lab studies.
    E- for example McGeoch into the effects of similarity.
    E- likely to be ways we forget information LTM.
    L- control extraneous variables confidence valid explanation for forgetting.
  52. 52Evaluations for forgetting:interference 1 of fullP- A strength for our knowledge on interference is that we have gathered it from lab studies.
    E- Many lab studies have been carried out into interference for example McGeoch into the effects of similarity.
    E- Most of these studies show that both types of interference are very likely to be ways we forget information from our LTM.
    L- This is a strength as lab studies control extraneous variables and thus give us confidence that interference is a valid explanation for forgetting.
  53. 53Evaluations for forgetting:interference 2 of promptsP- (lim) lab studies are artificial.
    E- Baddeley (1990) time between learning the tasks the effect might be different in real life.
    E- McGeoch use artificial material (i.e. word lists) meaningless do not represent everyday situations
    L- lack mundane realism generalised to everyday life.
  54. 54Evaluations for forgetting:interference 2 of fullP- A limitation is that lab studies are artificial.
    E- Baddeley (1990) states that the time between learning the tasks given to participants in laboratory experiments (such as learning one list of words and then learning another list of words before recalling them) are too close to each other and, in real life, these kinds of events are more spaced out so the effect might be different.
    E- Studies such as Underwood & Postman use artificial material (i.e. word lists) which are meaningless to the participants so they do not represent everyday situations when we have to remember things which have meaning to us i.e. a shopping list.
    L- This suggests that these studies lack mundane realism and therefore should not be generalised to everyday life.
  55. 55Evaluations for forgetting:interference 3 of promptsP- (strength) Baddeley's study real life setting.
    E- Baddeley interference better explanation for forgetting than time.
    E- rugby teams remember the names of the teams
    E- The results showed that recall wasn't really effected by the time but amount.
    L- everyday setting.
  56. 56Evaluations for forgetting:interference 3 of FullP A strength is the use of Baddeley's study on interference in a real life setting.
    E- Baddeley wanted to find out if interference was a better explanation for forgetting than the passage of time.
    So they asked members of rugby teams to remember the names of the teams they had played so far.
    E- The results showed that recall wasn't really effected by the time between games but the amount.
    L- This is an example of how interference effects people in an everyday setting.
  57. 57Explanations for forgetting-RETRIEVAL FAILURE THEORY. -CuesLack of cues can cause retrieval failure because without them it can be difficult to access memories.
    -The encoding specificity principle is the idea that cues are only helpful when they are present when learning occurs and when information is retrieved. If the cues that are available during encoding are different from the ones at retrieval there will be some kind of forgetting.
  58. 58Meaningful cuesSome cues have meaning linked to the memory.
    Some cues don't have a meaningful link:
    -Context-dependent forgetting- when retrieval is dependent on an external cue (environment)
    -State-dependent forgetting- when retrieval is dependent internal cue (state of mind)
  59. 59CONTEXT DEPENDENT FORGETTING Key study Godden & BaddeleyGodden and Baddeley asked divers to learn a list of words on land or underwater and then recall them on land or underwater. They found that there was lower accurate recall in the non-matching conditions. The external cues that were available during encoding were not the same as the ones available during retrieval. This led to retrieval failure.
  60. 60STATE-DEPENDENT FORGETTING Key study GoodwinA study by Goodwin et al. (1969) investigated the effect of alcohol on state-dependent retrieval. They found that when people encoded information when drunk, they were more likely to recall it in the same state. For example, when they hid money and alcohol when drunk, they were unlikely to find them when sober. However, when they were drunk again, they often discovered the hiding place.
  61. 61—

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AS - Level Psychology Karteikarten am Memory, erstellt von Alpha Wolfrik am 26/05/2017.
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