Karteikarten
Developmental psych
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- 1Church & Goldin-Meadow (1986); Allibali & Goldin-Meadow (1993)Gestures produced alongside speech can demonstrate partial knowledge not shown in speech
Gesture-speech mismatch: information conveyed in gesture may not appear anywhere in accompanying speech
- Inconsistency taken as an index of transitional knowledge - 2Clements & Perner (1994)3 year-olds show greater understanding of Theory of Mind via a nonverbal implicit response (anticipatory looking) compared to an explicit response (verbal response to question)
Children develop an implicit or unconscious understanding of false belief at an earlier age than they develop an explicit or conscious understanding - 3Lecture 2Development of theory of mind
- 4Repacholi & Gopnik (1997): Broccoli/Crackers Study-18m but not 14m understood that the experimenter's desired food differed from theirs
- Suggests they understand that desire is a subjective mental state that can differ from person to person - 5Wimmer & Perner (1983)Unexpected transfer/Maxi task:
>5yrs judge that maxi will look for the chocolate where he put it
<5yrs judge that maxi will look where they will look (fridge) - 6Perner et al. (1987) Gopnik & Astington (1988Deceptive box test:
- Whats inside smarties tube? (guess) what is in it? (see), what will your friend say is inside? (predict
- When you first saw this tube before we opened it what did you think was inside?
-3/4yr old difficulty acknowledging false belief in others and own prior false belief once know what is inside - 7Wellman, Cross & Watson (2001)Meta-analysis of 178 studies:
- Support for substantial developmental effect over preschool years: <3.5yrs below chance, >4yrs above chance
- Type of task/question, nature of protagonist/object irrelevant
- Decelptive motive, active participation and salience of mental state improve performance
-Although manipulating several variables improved performance, this was the case across all ages rather than just younger children –not selectively unmasking early competence
-None of the variable manipulations improved performance of 3yos above chance - 8Callaghan et al (2005)Cross-cultural comparisons:
- Despite leading very different lives children in industrialised societies and those in more rural societies show similar developmental shift between 3 and 5 years - 9Harris (1999)Conversations in general are crucial for exposing children to other people's perspectives. They provide children with the vocabulary needed to discuss and reflect on mental states
- 10Perner, Ruffman & Leekham (1994) Ruffman et al (1998)Children with older siblings show earlier ToM
- 11Dunn et al (1991) Ruffman, Slade & Crowe (2002)Children whose parents talk about mental states more understand false belief earlier than other children
- 12Peterson & Siegel (1995)Deaf children of hearing parents show a developmental lag on FB tasks
- 13Peterson & Siegal (1999)Deaf children of signing parents are comparable with hearing children
- 14Wellman & Liu (2004)Theory of Mind Scale:
- Diverse Desires: people can have different desires for the same thing
- Diverse Beliefs: people can have different beliefs about the same situation
- Knowledge-access: something can be true, but someone might not know that
- False Belief: something can be true, but someone might falsely believe something different
- Hidden Emotion: Someone can feel one way but display a different emotion - 15Wellman et al (2006)Cross cultural differences:
-Children in western countries: DD>DB>KA>FB>HE
-Chinese and Iranian children: DD>KA>DB>FB>HE
Thought to be related to differences in cultural values - collectivist vs individualism - 16Diamond & Taylor (1996)Executive functions:
- The frontal lobes of the brain are very important for executive functions
- Take a long time to develop
- Important developments in inhibitory control take place in the first 6 years of life with marked improvement between age 3-6 - 17Carlson & Moses (2001) Sabbagh et al (2007)Evidence of strong positive correlation between children's inhibitory control (e.g. on Bear/Dragon task) and FB performance
- Suggests that development in IC and ToM may be related
- IC may be a crucial enabling factor for ToM development, possibly affecting both the emergence and expression of mental state knowledge - 18Moll et al (2016)Implicit understanding of FB
- Investigated children's facial expressions as indices of their belief understanding
- found greater instances of expressed tension in the false belief cf. true belief condition -> suggests 3 yrs were aware of anothers false belief and recognised the affective consequences of the false belief
- Children's performance on a classic FB task was poor and unrelated to the amount of expressions they displayed while watching FB videos -> suggests expressions are independent from and emerge prior to explicit knowledge of false beliefs - 19Clements & Perner (1994)Implicit understanding of FB
- Tested 44 children aged 2y5m-4y6m on unexpected transfer task. Implicit = anticipatory looking, explicit = standard verbal response
-86% children over 2y11m showed looking pattern indicative of FB understanding, only 1 child under 2y11m - 20Wiesmann et al (2017)Dissociation of implicit-explicit understanding of belief
- 3yr olds looked to correct location even though gave incorrect answer
- Large gap between implicit and explicit understanding from 2y11m
- Data suggest that children develop an implicit or unconscious understanding of false belief at an earlier age than they develop an explicit or conscious understanding - 21Onishi & Baillargeon (2005)-Used a totally nonverbal task to test for implicit FB understanding in 15 month old infants
- Violation of expectancy method
- Significantly longer looking when expectation violated
- suggests infants expect people to search for objects consistent with their beliefs about the object locaiton, not where the objects are in reality - 22Apperly & Butterfill (2009)Dual Route Model:
1) Fast and efficient system: fast, unconscious, automatic, everyday decisions, error prone
2) Slow and cognitively demanding system: slow, conscious, effortful, complex decisions, reliable - 23Lecture 3Phylogeny: do apes have ToM?
- 24PovinelliChimps do not reason about others' beliefs, or any other mental states
Same behaviours, but not same underlying psychological mechanisms
- Behavioural abstraction hypothesis: understand only surface-level of behaviour and form behavioural rules. BAH posits that chimpanzees make predictions about future behaviours that follow from past behaviours and adjust their own behaviour accordingly - 25TomaselloChimps have ToM in some respects but not in others
No evidence whether they understand false beliefs
But chimps understand goals/intentions and perception and knowledge of others
- Beyond behaivoural rules: chimps highly social animals, need to anticipate what others do, observing previous behaviour and deriving set of behavioural rules enables behavioural prediction
but inferring states not only in previously observed situations, but also in novel situations
need to anticipate actions based on goals and intentions - 26Buttelmann et al (2007)Understanding Goals and Intentions:
- 6 chimps imitated E's novel action when he seemed to do it intentionally but not when this was due to a physical constraint
- Chimps understand other's goals and intentions - 27Call & Tomasello (2008)Chimps show understanding of goals or intentions
Findings contradict povinelli behavioural abstraction hypothesis - 28Povinelli & Eddy (1996) Tomasello et al (2007)Ape looks to spot behind her, apes tries to look behind screen, understands gaze stops at an opaque barrier, but apes rely more on head direction than eye direction
- Chimps beg for food from blindfolded human - begging is indiscriminate - 29Kaminski et al (2004)Chimps begged more when they were being watched, sensitive to both body and face orientation but not eyes
- 30Hare, Call & Tomasello (2001)Competitive Paradigm:
- Suggests chimpanzees can reason about others' knowledge on the basis of what others have/have not seen - 31Hare et al (2006)Perceptions differ: need to distinguish between own and other's vision
- Chimps show visual and auditory perspective taking - 32Melis, Call & Tomasello (2006)In the presence of a human competitor chimps preferred ot reach thorugh a silent rather than noisy tunnel
Suggests they are sensitive to what others can hear
Are able to manipulate the auditory perception of a competitor - 33Call & Tomasello (1999)Test for FB understanding
- man watches as treat hidden under one of two cups; chimp can’t see
man leaves, cups are swapped, man returns and points to one cup, chimp single chance to retrieve, chimp scores if looks under cup man didn’t point to,
None of the apes passed - 34Marticorena et al (2011)Test for FB understanding
Testing rhesus monkeys in the wild, participants opportunistically sampled by searching the island
Used a violation of expectancy method
- True belief: looked for longer when actor failled to look for object in correct location when she is informed
- False belief condition: no difference in looking time
- Suggest they can represent whether the actor is knowledgeable or ignorant, however they did not expect the actor to search in the wrong location in line with their false belief
- Can represent knowledge and ignorance of others but not their beliefs - 35Krupenye et al (2016)Latest evidence using eye tracking
Used annticipatory gaze paradigm
- Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs - 36Lecture 4Theories of Autism
- 37Baron-Cohen et al (1985)Socialisation difficulties (Autism&False belief):
Developed a task to test whether autistic children around 4 years old had a Theory of Mind (sally/ann), tested this using an unexpected transfer test of false belief.
- only 20% of autistic children with a mental age of 4 years old give this correct answer – 80% say that sally will look in the box.
- 85% of typicall developing children, and 86% of children with downsyndrome however were able to pass this false belief task. This suggests that ToM difficulties are unique to autism and not associated with general intellectual disability. - 38Klin (2000)Ami Klin and colleagues reconceptualised ToM – they referred to the Enactive Mind Hypothesis (Klin et al.)
According to this hypothesis, autistic people are not attuned to social world early on in development, which impacts learning opportunities, and has a knock on effect on subsequent development,. For example, faces and eyes might not capture attention of autistic children which might affect learning opportunities about facial expressions and shared enjoyment, which are diagnostic indicators for autism around 3 years of age.
So Klin and colleagues hypothesised that if autistic children did not have an enactive mind which automatically found social information salient, then perhaps this would also be evidence in the way that autistic children described behaviour. Specifically, non-autistic people because they have a bias to see the world in terms of social connections, they cannot help but attribute mental states, personality, thoughts and intentions to inanimate objects, but autistic children may not have this bias. - 39Sparrevohn & Howie (1995)Autistic children with higher verbal mental age more likely to pass ToM tasks
- 40Happe (1995)Meta analysis on ADF & ToM
- relationship between child's verbal mental age and passing FB tasks
- Verbal mental age of 12 able to pass compared to 4yrs in TD children - 41Baron-Cohen (1989)-Autistic children who passed 1st order FB tasks tended to fail 2nd order FB tasks - suggest delay in development of theory of mind rather than deficit
- Bowler et al found 73% young adults with AS passed 2nd order FB tasks, argued this shows that deficits in ToM are not universal - 42Sally Ozonoff et al (1991)Executive control proposed to account for social and non-social symptoms (repetitive behaviour)
- systematic investigation of mental inflexibility with Tower of hanoi, wisconsin card sort. - 43Russel et al (1991)Windows task
Perhaps FB task failure due to insufficient flexibility in imagination to give correct judgement?
Children <4 yrs and autistic children unable to inhibit pre-potent response (Russell et al 991)
It’s about resisting to point to attentional focus/salient part
Perhaps FB task not about lack of insight but more about failure to inhibit? - 44Sodian & Frith (1992)Executive function
Study: ASD no problem in sabotage, but cannot withhold information (fail deception)
Impairment is not an EF deficit
Not specific
adults onset ED not cause ASD
Children with PKU show ED, but are not ASD (Welsh et al, 1990) - also in Tourette’s
Not unique
no evidence for Executive Dysfunction in autistic pre-school children (Griffith, et al. 1999; Dawson, et al. 2002)
Not universal - 45Frith (2003)Weak central coherence: do not automatically process contextual meaning or use prior knowledge, a bias towards piecemeal or local (over global) processing
- 46Pring et al (1995)Individuals with autism were as fast at solving a jigsaw upside down as right way up (embedded figures test)
- 47Milton (2012)Double Empathy Problem:
Autistic-autistic interactions more efficient than autistic-neurotypical interactions
- The double empathy problem however asserts that people with more similar experiences of the world will be able to more strongly empathise with the other. - 48Crompton et al (2019)Diffusion chains
autistic peer-to-peer information transfer more efficient than mixed chain
- not representative, participants aware of diagnostic status, chains not gender balanced - 49Sasson et al (2017)How are autistic people perceived?
non-autistic people tended to rate autistic people less socially favourably, not due to speech content but other audio/visual cues - 50Sheppard et al (2019) Alkhaldi et al (2019) Sasson & Morrison (2019)Non-autistic people find autistic people relatively harder to read
Non-autistic people might rate autistic people negatively because they are hard to read
Disclosing autism diagnosis and increased autism knowledge increases favourability ratings of autistic people - 51Golan et al (2010)The transporters: video of trains with real emotion faces and social situations
- compard to no-intervention group, children significantly improved across all measures
- Young & poselt (2012) found improved results as well - 52Rodgers et al (2020)Recent systematic review and meta-analysis showed limited evidence in support of ABA
Long term impact of the early interventions beyond 2 years was unknown
Wide range of effect sizes
Some evidence for positive effects on cognitive ability and adaptive behaviour (life skills, social and communication skills) - 53McGill & Robinson (2020)Testimony of autistic adults who experienced ABA as children about potential harms not captured in research
- 54Jones et al (2021)Autism Acceptance Training
Non-autistic adults in the autism acceptance training condition reported:
more positive impressions of autistic adults
fewer misconceptions and lower stigma about autism
endorsed higher expectations of autistic abilities
expressed greater social interest in hypothetical and real autistic people
No effect on implicit biases:
non-autistic adults associating autism-related labels with unpleasant personal attributes regardless of training condition - 55Lecture 5Mental health in typical and atypical development
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- university Psychology Karteikarten am Developmental psych, erstellt von Catherine Woollard am 24/05/2021.
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