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Anatomy and Physiology

Wise Alice Structure and Function of Living Organisms Englisch 5,0Durchschnittliche Bewertung 5,0 von 5 (1 Bewertung) 258 Karten

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  1. 1Tometo cut
  2. 2AnaApart
  3. 3Anatomical PositionThe body is erect and facing forward, arms are at the side, the palms are facing forward, and the toes are pointing forward.
  4. 4Anterior (Ventral)Toward the front of the body (belly side)
  5. 5Posterior (dorsal)toward the back of the body
  6. 6Superior (cranial)above, or toward the head end of the body.
  7. 7Inferior (caudal)below, or toward the feet.
  8. 8Lateralfarther from the midline of the body
  9. 9Medialnearer to the midline of the body.
  10. 10Internal (deep)deeper within the body, away from the surface of the body.
  11. 11External (superficial)nearer the surface of the body
  12. 12Proximalnearer to the midline of the body or to the origin of a part.
  13. 13Distalfarther from the midline of the body or from the origin of a part.
  14. 14Parietalrefers to the walls of a cavity
  15. 15Visceralrefers to the organs found in a cavity
  16. 16Ipsilateralrefers to structures that are on the same side of the body.
  17. 17Contralateralrefers to structures that are on opposite sides of the body.
  18. 18CephalicHead
  19. 19FrontalForehead
  20. 20OrbitalEye cavity
  21. 21BuccalCheek
  22. 22MentalChin
  23. 23SternalBreast bone
  24. 24PectoralChest
  25. 25UmbilicalNavel
  26. 26InguinalGroin
  27. 27CoxalHip
  28. 28SuralCalf
  29. 29CruralLeg
  30. 30PedalFoot
  31. 31OticEar
  32. 32NasalNose
  33. 33OralMouth
  34. 34CervicalNeck
  35. 35AcromialPoint of Shoulder
  36. 36AxillaryArmpit
  37. 37MammaryBreast
  38. 38BrachialArm
  39. 39AntecubitalFront of elbow
  40. 40AbdominalAbdomen
  41. 41Antebrachialforearm
  42. 42Carpalwrist
  43. 43palmarpalm
  44. 44digitalfinger
  45. 45genitalreproductive organs
  46. 46patellarfront of knee
  47. 47tarsalinstep
  48. 48digitaltoe
  49. 49occipitalback of head
  50. 50vertebralspinal column
  51. 51dorsumback
  52. 52cubitalelbow
  53. 53lumbarlower back
  54. 54sacralbetween hips
  55. 55glutealbuttocks
  56. 56perinealarea between the anus and the reproductive organ
  57. 57femoralthigh
  58. 58poplitealback of knee
  59. 59plantarsole
  60. 60Sagittal Planethis plane runs anterior to posterior and divides the body into right and left portions
  61. 61Median (midsagittal) Planeruns through the midline of the body and divides it into right and left halves
  62. 62Parasagittal PlanePlane that runs on either side of the midline of the body and divides it into unequal right and left sides
  63. 63Coronal (or frontal) PlaneThis plane runs vertically to the ground and divides the body into a front (anterior or ventral) and a back (posterior or dorsal) portion.
    *Both the sagittal and coronal planes result in a longitudinal section of the body
  64. 64TransverseThis plane runs parallel to the ground and divides the body into superior and inferior portions.
    *The term cross section is frequently used. This refers to any section cut perpendicular to the long axis of an organ or structure.
  65. 65Serous MembranesThin, double-layered membrane that lined walls of cavity and outer surfaces. Provide protection and lubrication for organ movement
  66. 66Pleural Membranes (pleura)- The membranes surrounding the lungs are the visceral and parietal PLEURAL MEMBRANES (PLEURA)
    - Parietal and visceral membranes
  67. 67Pericardial Membrane (Pericardium)- The membranes surrounding the heart are the visceral and parietal pericardial membrane (pericardium)
  68. 68Peritoneal membranes (Peritoneum)The membranes enclosing the organs in the abdominopelvic cavity are the visceral and parietal peritoneal membranes (peritoneum)
  69. 69The major body cavities1) Cranial Cavity
    2) Vertebral Cavity
    3) Ventral Cavity
  70. 70Cranial Cavityhouses the brain
  71. 71Spinal Cavity (or canal)formed by the vertebral foramina, houses the spinal cord
  72. 72Dorsal CavityThe cranial and vertebral cavities
  73. 73Ventral Cavity*Formed by the space enclosed by the ribs, sternum, muscles, and pelvic bone.
    *Large cavity that includes the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.
    *These two cavities are separated by the diaphragm.
  74. 74Thoracic CavityLocated above the diaphragm and includes three smaller cavities and a space:
    1) Pleural cavity
    2) pericardial cavity
    3) mediastinum
  75. 75Pleural cavitylocated between the visceral and parietal pleural membranes around each lung
  76. 76Pericardial cavitylocated between the visceral and parietal pericardial membranes around the heart.
  77. 77MediastinumThe space between the lunges, houses the thymus, trachea, bronchi, esophagus, and the large blood vessels entering and leaving the heart. Also houses the heart.
  78. 78Abdominopelvic CavityLocated below the diaphragm and includes three smaller cavities:
    1) Abdominal Cavity
    2) Pelvic Cavity
    3) Peritoneal Cavity
  79. 79Abdominal CavityHouses the stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and most of the small and large intestines.
    *Kidneys, ureters, and adrenal glands are also in this cavity area, but lie behind the peritoneal lining and are RETROPERITONEAL.
  80. 80Pelvic CavityHouses the urinary bladder, ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vas deferens, seminal vescicle, prostate glad, Cowper's gland, the lower part of the small intestine, and the lower part of the large intestine, including the cecum, appendix, sigmoid colon, and rectum.
  81. 81Peritoneal CavityLocated between the visceral and parietal peritoneal membranes, which line the abdominopelvic cavity.
  82. 82Vertebral Cavityspinal cord and backbone
  83. 83Oral CavityTeeth and tongue
  84. 84Nasal CavityNose divided into right/left nasal septum
  85. 85Orbital CavitiesEyes; associated with skeletal muscles and nerves
  86. 86Middle Ear Cavitiesmiddle ear bones
  87. 87Parietalmembrane attached to wall of cavity
  88. 88Visceralmembrane attached to internal organ
  89. 89Serous Fluidwatery fluid separating parietal and visceral membranes
  90. 90Axialhead, neck, and trunk
  91. 91AppendicularUpper and lower limbs
  92. 92Bilateralpaired structures, one of each side
  93. 93Superficialsituated near the surface
  94. 94Deepmore internal than superficial parts
  95. 95Filtrationthe passage of materials under pressure (or gravity) through a semipermeable membrane on the basis of size.
    Example: formation of tissue fluid by forcing water and dissolved substances out of blood capillaries
  96. 96PermeableTo pass through the openings
  97. 97Passive Diffusionthe spontaneous passage of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached
  98. 98Passive Mechanisms- Do not require energy
    -> Diffusion
    -> Facilitated Diffusion
    -> Osmosis
    -> Filtration
  99. 99Active Mechanisms- Require cellular energy
    -> active transport
    -> endocytosis
    -> exocytosis
  100. 100DiffusionMolecules or ions in liquid or air solution move from regions of
    higher concentration → lower concentration
  101. 101Facilitated Diffusion*Used when substances are not able to pass through lipid bilayer without help of membrane proteins
    *Uses carrier molecules to transport substances in/out of cell
  102. 102OsmosisType of diffusion in which water moves from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration through a membrane selectively permeable ONLY to water
    *Impermeable to the solute
  103. 103Osmotic PressureAbility of osmosis to generate enough pressure to ↑ water volume
  104. 104Active TransportProcess that moves particles through membranes from region of lower concentration to higher concentration
  105. 105ExocytosisMoves particles out of cell (export)
  106. 106Endocytosis*Moves particles into cell
    *Includes: Pinocytosis & Phagocytosi
  107. 107Pinocytosis“cell drinking”
    Engulfs liquid droplets
  108. 108Phagocytosis“cell eating”
    Engulfs solids
  109. 109TranscytosisSelectively transports substance from one end of cell to other end of cell
  110. 110Isotonicany solution w/ same osmotic pressure as body fluids
  111. 111Hypertonicsolutions w/ higher osmotic pressure than body fluids
    *Cell will shrink
  112. 112Hypotonicsolution w/ lower osmotic pressure than body fluids
    *Cell will appear swollen
  113. 113TonicityThe osmotic pressure or tension of a solution.
  114. 114Receptor-mediated endocytosisendocytotic mechanism in which specific molecules are ingested into the cell
  115. 115Edema*occurs when an excessive volume of fluid accumulates in the tissues
    *Causes: eating too much sugar or salt, water imbalance
  116. 116Fluid CompartmentsIntracellular and extracellular
  117. 117Intracellularliquid (fluid) contained inside the cell membranes
  118. 118ExtracellularFluid outside our cells.
    *Consists of: plasma (or intravascular fluid), interstitial fluid, and lymph fluid
  119. 119Plasma (Intravascular fluid)Fluid that is found in blood vessels.
    *The blood vessels wrap around the cells, bringing oxygen and nutrients and removing waste
  120. 120Interstitial FluidFluid that surrounds the cells
  121. 121Lymph Fluid*The clear fluid found outside the cells which bathes the tissues.
    *It is collected, filtered, and transported by the lymphatic system from around the tissues to the blood circulatory system.
  122. 122GrossLarge body structures
  123. 123Regionalparticular structures in area
  124. 124systemicsystem by system
  125. 125surfacetopographical or superficial
  126. 126microscopicsmall body structures
  127. 127cytologythe study of cells
  128. 128histologythe study of tissues
  129. 129developmentalprogressive structural changes
  130. 130embryologythe study of changes before birth
  131. 131What is anatomy?The study of structure of living organisms
  132. 132What is Physiology?the study of the function of
    living organisms
  133. 133Renal PhysiologyKidney function and urine production
  134. 134Neurophysiologynervous system
  135. 135cardiovascular physiologyheart and blood vessels
  136. 136Levels of Organizations of the Body1) Atom
    2) Molecule
    3) Macromolecule
    4) Organelle
    5) Cell
    6) Tissue
    7) Organ
    8) Organ System
    9) Organism
  137. 137What is at the chemical level?Atoms, Molecules, & Macromolecules
  138. 138What is at the cellular level?cells: smallest unit of living things
  139. 139Tissuesgroup of similar cells
  140. 140Organ- discrete structure composed of at least 2 tissue.
    - complex functions become possible
  141. 141Organ systemorgans that work together to accomplish common goal
  142. 142Organismsum total of all structural levels working together
  143. 143Characteristics of LifeThere are nine:
    Movement, Responsiveness, Growth, Reproduction, Boundaries, Metabolism, Development, Digestion, Excretion
  144. 144What is homeostasis?ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though outside environment changes
  145. 145Homeostatic Mechanisms3 components of self-regulating system:
    1) Receptors
    2) Control Center/Set Point
    3) Effectors
  146. 146Homeostatic Mechanisms: RECEPTORSSensor that responds to stimulus by sending input to control center (afferent)
  147. 147Homeostatic Mechanism: CONTROL CENTER/SET POINTanalyzes input and determines response
  148. 148Homeostatic Mechanism: EFFECTORSprovides means for control center's response to stimulus (efferent)
  149. 149Negative Feedback System- response acts against the stimulus
    - receptors measure deviation from set point
    - effectors activate & return conditions towards normal
    - as conditions return to normal, deviation from set point lessons & effectors shut down
    - decreasing the stimulus can be either raining or lowering the level
    - Examples: Home heating system; body temperature; insulin/glucagon regulation
  150. 150Positive Feedback System- response acts to amplify stimulus
    - result of response enhances original stimulus so activity is accelerated
    - change that occurs proceeds in same direction as initial disturbance
    - usually control infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments
    - examples: blood clotting
  151. 151Chemistrybranch of science that considers composition of matter and how this composition changes
  152. 152What is matter?anything that occupies space and has mass
  153. 153Elements- fundamental substances that compose matter
    - example: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, iron
    *human body requires approx. 20% elements: 95% are O, C, H, N
  154. 154Atoms- building blocks of elements
    - atoms w/in element are similar but differ from other atoms in different elements
    - atoms vary in size, weight, and interactions
  155. 155What does an atomic structure consist of?Nucleus, Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
  156. 156Protonsingle positive electrical charge
  157. 157Neutronuncharged (neutral)
  158. 158Electronssingle negative electrical charge
  159. 159Atomic Number# of protons in atom
  160. 160Atomic WeightNumber of protons & neutrons in the nucleus
  161. 161What is an isotope?- atoms of an element with different atomic weights due to an unusual # of neutrons
  162. 162Ionsatoms that gain or lose electrons become charged
  163. 163Chemical Bondatoms attache to other atoms by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons
  164. 164Ionic Bondchemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other
    *example: Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
  165. 165Covalent BondChemical bond in which atoms share electrons equally (single, double, or triple)
  166. 166Polar Covalent Bondcovalent bond in which the electrons are not shared equally, creating a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end
    *Example: Water
  167. 167Hydrogen Bondweak attraction between polar ends of molecules
  168. 168Moleculetwo or more atoms held together by a chemical bond (same or different element)
  169. 169Compoundtwo or more atoms of different elements held together by a chemical bond
    *example: water
    - molecule of a compound always consist of definite kinds and numbers of atoms
  170. 170Electrolytessubstances that release ions in water
  171. 171Acidselectrolytes that release hydrogen ions (H+) in water
    (example: HCl --> H+ + Cl-
  172. 172Baseselectrolytes that release ions that bond with hydrogen ions
    (ex: NaOH --> Na+ + OH-)
  173. 173pHvalue that measures hydrogen ion concentration
  174. 174pH Scale- ranges from 0 to 14
    - pH of 7 is neutral b/c has equal # of hydrogen and hydroxide ions
    - pH less than 7 is acidic, more than 7 is basic (alkaline)
    - each whole number differs by a factor of 10
    *ex/ 4.0 is 10 times more acidic than 5.0
  175. 175Inorganic Compoundsmolecules that do NOT contain carbon (exceptions: CO, CO2)
  176. 176Organic Compounds- molecule that include both carbon and hydrogen atoms
    -can dissolve in water but usually do NOT release ions
    - organic compounds in cells: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
  177. 177Carbohydrates- macronutrient supplying energy for cells
    - contains elements C, H, & O
    - most common: glucose
  178. 178Categories of Carbohydrates1) Monosccharides (glucose, fructose, glactose)
    2) Disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose)
    3) Polysaccharides (starch, fiber, glycogen)
  179. 179Monosaccharides- simple sugar units
  180. 180Glucose- blood sugar
    - found in fruits and vegetables
    - used for: cell energy, stored as glycogen in muscles and liver, converted to fat for energy storage
  181. 181Fructose- "fruit sugar"
    - found in fruit, honey, corn syrup
  182. 182Galactosefound as part of lactose in milk
  183. 183Disaccharidestwo monosaccharides
  184. 184Sucrose- Glucose + Fructose
    - commonly known as table sugar
  185. 185Lactose- milk sugar
    - glucose + galatose
  186. 186Maltose- Glucose + Glucose
    - Honey
  187. 187Polysaccharides3 or more simple sugars combined
  188. 188Animal Polysaccharides- Glycogen: ranges in size from few hundred to thousands of glucose molecules linked together like sausage links
    *storage form of glucose
  189. 189LipidsFats, phospholipids, steroids
  190. 190Neutral fats (aka triglyceride)- contains C, H, & O
    - most common & plentiful fat in body
    - supply energy (9 kcal/gram)
    - more than 95% of body fat is triglyceride (primary storage form)
    - composed of 2 different atom clusters
  191. 191Fatty Acids- give each fat unique qualities of flavor & texture
    - Two types: Saturated & Unsaturated
    - differ in: *length of carbon chain
    *bonding of carbon atoms and arrangement of hydrogen atoms along carbon chain
  192. 192Saturated Fatty Acidscontain only SINGLE BONDS between C atoms; all remaining bonds attach to hydrogen
    - the fatty acid molecule holds as many H+ atoms as possible -- thus the term saturated
  193. 193Unsaturated Fatty Acids- contain one or more double bonds along the main C chain - the fatty acid is unsaturated with respect to H+
  194. 194Mono-unsaturated1 double bond (olive, canola, and peanut oil)
  195. 195Poly - unsaturated2 or more double bonds (safflower, sunflower, soybean, corn oil)
  196. 196Phospholipidsmodified triglyceride with a glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group
    - component of ALL cells
    - modulate fluid movement across cells walls
    - important in blood clotting
  197. 197Steroids- ring structured lipids
    - example: Cholesterol
    *component of cell membranes
    * precursor to other substances (sterol hormones {sex hormones}, vitamin D, bile salts)
  198. 198Functions of Proteins- Anabolism
    - structural proteins
    - enzymes
    - DNA, RNA
    - Blood Plasma
    - Vitamin Precursor
    - 1 g = 5.65 kCal
  199. 199Protein Organization- Chemical organization similar to fats & CHO, except protein also contain Nitrogen
    - Basic unit --"building blocks" -- of protein are Amino Acids (AA)
  200. 200Amino Acids- organic compounds that combine to form proteins. Amino acids and proteins are the building blocks of life.
    - The human body uses amino acids to make proteins to help the body: Break down food, grow, repair body tissue, perform many other body functions
  201. 201Structural Levels of Protein-bonding of atoms in different parts of the polypeptide chain give protein distinctive 3-dimensional shape=conformation
    *conformation determines proteins functions
    - Levels: Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
  202. 202Primarylinear sequence of amino acids
  203. 203SecondaryAlpha helix or beta pleated
  204. 204Tertiarybends superimposed on the alpha helix
  205. 205Quaternaryjoining of 2 or more polypeptide chains
  206. 206Nucleic Acids: RNA & DNAcomposed of C, O, H, N, and P are the largest molecules in the body
    - form genes
    - take part in protein synthesis
    - structural units are nucleotides
  207. 207RNAribonucleic acid
    - located chiefly outside nucleus
    - carries out orders of for protein synthesis
  208. 208DNAdeoxyribonucleic acid
    - found in nucleus
    - constitues genetic material or genes
    - provides instructions for building every protein in body
  209. 209The Composite Cell- all cells composed mainly of C, H, N, & O
    - Cells 3 main components:
    1) Plasma Membrane
    2) Cytoplasm
    3) Nucleus
  210. 210Plasma Membrane- outer boundary of cell; serve as external barrier
    - act in transport of substances into/out of cell
    - proteins in membrane act as receptors to detect signals
    - helps cells attach to certain other cells (important for tissue formation)
    - helps body recognize that it's your body's cell
  211. 211Plasma Membrane: General Traits-thin, flexible, and elastic
    - selectively permeable
    - microvilli (not common in all cells), found in small intestines
    - composed of double layer (bilayer) of phospholipid molecules with proteins dispersed throughout
    *proteins float in fluid bilayer creating a constantly changing mosaic pattern = fluid mosaic model
  212. 212Microvillifinger-like extensions that project and increase surface area (in absorptive cells)
  213. 213Plasma Membrane Structure-bilayer of phospholipid molecules w/ proteins
    - water soluble phosphate "heads" form surfaces of membrane (hydrophilic)
    - water insoluble "tails" form interior of membrane (hydrophobic)
    - 2 parallel sheets of phospholipid molecules lying tail to tail w/ polar head facing exterior and interior of cell
  214. 214Plasma Membrane Proteins- proteins embedded in membrane
    - variety of functions and shapes
    - 2 main types: integral proteins & peripheral proteins
  215. 215Plasma Membrane Proteins: INTEGRAL-firmly inserted into lipid bilayer
    - may protrude from 1 or both faces of membrane
    - have hydrophobic & hydrophilic regions allowing them to interact w/ non-polar lipid tails and w/ water inside/outside cell
    - Ex/ transmembrane & non- transmembrane
  216. 216Transmembranemainly used for transport
    - form channels
    - act as carriers (bring something in/out of cell)
    - receptors that relay info to cell inferior
  217. 217Plasma Membrane Proteins: PERIPHERAL- associate mainly w/ 1 side of membrane (NOT embedded into lipid membrane)
    - attach loosely to integral proteins or membrane lipids
    - easily removed w/o disturbing cell membrane
    - Functions: enzymes, change cell shape, link cells
    - NOT USED FOR TRANSPORTATION
  218. 218Plasma Membrane Functions- Transport
    - enzymatic activity
    - receptors for signal transduction
    - intercellular joining
    - cell-cell recognition
    - attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (CAM)
  219. 219Plasma Membrane: Selective Barrier- allows mvmt. of substance in/out of cell
    *"traffic" is continuous but selective
    - Two types: Passive Mechanisms and Active Mechanisms
  220. 220Cytoplasm- gel-like substance where organelles & membranes are suspended in cytosol
    - makes up most of cell's volume
    - includes protein rods & tubules that form cytoskeleton or "cell skeleton"
    *protein connects to rods & tubules to create shape and function
    - most of cell activities occur here
  221. 221CytoskeletonContain two main structures:
    - microfilaments
    - Microtubules
  222. 222Microfilaments- tiny rods of protein called actin
    - form bundles
    - provide cell movement
  223. 223Microtubules- long, rigid, slender tubes
    - composed of tubulin (globular protein)
    - important in cell division
    - help determine overall shape of cell & shape distribution of organelles
  224. 224Organelle: Endoplasmic Reticulum- extensive system of interconnected tubes & parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled cavities
    - coils and twists through cytosol
    - continuous w/ nuclear membrane
    - 2 variations: rough ER & smooth ER
  225. 225Rough ER- studded w/ ribosomes
    - ribosomes manufacture all proteins secreted from cell
    - manufactures integral proteins and phospholipids
    - closer to nucleus
  226. 226Smooth ER- closer to plasma membrane of cell
    - ribosomes sparse
    - enzymes important in lipid synthesis, fat absorption, metabolism of drugs
    - abundant in liver
  227. 227Organelle: Golgi Apparatus"traffic director"
    - stacked and flattened membranous sacs
    - refines, packages, & transport proteins synthesized on ribosomes of Rough ER
    - proteins arrive at Golgi Apparatus enclosed in vesicles & fuse w/ GA membrane
    - proteins pass through layers & are modified chemically
    - proteins packaged & delivered through exocytosis to sites in cell or exported out of cell
  228. 228Organelle: Mitochondria- power plant of cell, providing most of its ATP supply and where ATP is created
    - elongated, fluid filled sacs w/ out and inner layer
    - inner layer folds extensively into partitions called cristae
    - contain own RNA & DNA; can reproduce themselves
    - active cells (muscle cells) have thousands of mitochondria
  229. 229Organelle: Lysosomes- "garbage disposals" of the cell
    - tiny membranous sacs that contain digestive enzymes
    - highly acidic interior
  230. 230Lysosomes Functions- digest particles taken in by endocytosis
    - degrades worn out, injured, or non-functioning organelles
    - metabolic functions such as glycogen breakdown
    - breaks down non-useful tissue (ex: uterine lining during menstruation)
    - breaks down bone to release calcium ions into blood
    - works close with immune system
  231. 231Organelle: Peroxisomes- most abundant in liver & kidney cells
    - contain enzymes, peroxidases that catalyze metabolic reactions that release hydrogen peroxide
    - contain enzyme, catalase, which decomposes hydrogen peroxide
  232. 232Organelle: Centrosome- near GA and nucleus
    - microtubules organizing center
    - contains paired centrioles
  233. 233Organelle: Centrioles- composed of microtubules in 9 groups
    of 3
    - at right angles to each other
    - distribute chromosomes to newly forming cells (will separate)
  234. 234Cilia- fringe surface of epithelial cells
    - tiny, hair-like, and attached beneath cell membrane
    - move in "to and fro" manner
    - waves move fluid over surface of certain tissues
  235. 235Flagella- longer than cilia
    - cell usually only has one
    - moves in undulating wave
    - ex: sperm tail
  236. 236Nucleus- houses genetic material (DNA) which directs all cell activities
    - large, spherical structure
    - contains nucleoplasm
  237. 237Nuclear Envelope- encloses nucleus
    - double layered; inner & outer lipid bilayer membrane
    - protein lined channel called nuclear pores
  238. 238Nucleolus- small, dense body composed of RNA & protein
    - site where ribosome subunits are assembled
  239. 239Chromatinloosely coiled fibers of DNA & protein that condense to form chromosomes
  240. 240Cell Life Cycle- series of changes cell undergoes from creation to reproduction/division
    - 3 phases:
    1) interphase 2) Mitotic Phase 3) cytokinesis
    - disruption can affect health
    *cell division too infrequent, no healing
    *cell division too frequent, cancer
  241. 241Interphase- period of cell formation to cell division
    - active period of synthetic activity
    *obtains/utilizes new living organism
    *maintains usual functions
    * duplicates membranes, ribosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria
    * replicates DNA
    - 3 phases: G1, S, G2
  242. 242Interphase: G1(Gap 1)
    - cell metabolically active
    - synthesizing proteins & growing rapidly
    - Variable phase: minutes to hours or days to years
  243. 243Interphase: S(Synthetic)
    - DNA replicates
    - histones are assembled into chromatin
  244. 244Interphase: G2(Gap 2)
    - very brief phase
    - enzymes/proteins needed for division are synthesized & moved
    - centriole replication is complete
    - cell ready to divide
  245. 245Mitosis- 4 Phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, & Telophase
    - duration varies, but usually 1 hour or less
  246. 246Prophase- first of four mitotic phases
    - chromatic threads coil & condense to form chromosomes
    - chromatids of each chromosome held together by centromere
    - nucleoli disappears & cytoskeleton disassembles
    - centrioles move away from each other
    - mitotic spindle forms from new assembly of microtubules
    - mitotic spindle occupies center of cell between the centrioles
  247. 247Metaphase- 2nd out of 4 mitotic phase
    - chromosomes line up at middle of cell
    - centromeres aligned at exact center
    - spindle fibers attach to centromeres of each chromosome
    - fiber from 1 centriole contacts 1 centromere and fiber from other centriole contacts other centromere.
  248. 248Anaphase- 3rd of 4th mitotic phase
    - centromeres pulled apart
    - as chromatids separate, they become individual chromosomes
    - spindles shorten & pull attached chromosomes towards their centrioles at opposite ends of cell
    - cell elongates
    - shortest stage of mitosis
  249. 249Telophase- 4 out of 4 mitotic phase
    - like prophase in reverse
    - chromosomes uncoil & resume chromatin form
    - nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass
    - nucleoli appear w/in new nuclei
    - spindle breaks down
    - brief moment, cell has 2 nuclei
    - mitosis ends
  250. 250Cytokinesis- cytoplasmic division
    - cell membrane constricts around cell middle creating a cleavage furrow
    - contraction of ring of microfilaments divides the cytoplasm
    - ring pinches inward, separating 2 nuclei & distributing half of organelles into each cell
  251. 251Control of Cell Division- cell division controlled/varied w/ cell type
    - most human cells divide between 40-60 times
    - basis for mitotic clock = DNA at tips of chromosomes, telomeres
  252. 252On telomeres- same 6 nucleotide sequence repeats hundreds of times
    - each mitosis removes 1200 nucleotides
    - at certain point, signals cell to cease dividing
  253. 253Control of Cell Division: External- hormones
    - growth factor (ex: epidermal)
    - space availability (contact inhibition)
    *division will not occur if there is inhibition)
  254. 254Control of Cell Division: Internal- levels of proteins, kinases & cyclins
    - cell size -- ratio between surface area cell membrane provides & cell volume
    * if volume is larger than cell membrane, cell will divide
  255. 255Tumors: Malignant- too frequent mitosis
    - unabated mitosis producing abnormal growth
  256. 256Oncogenes- abnormal variants of genes normally in control of cell cycle
    - over-expressed, increasing cell division rate
  257. 257Tumor supressor gene- normally hold mitosis in check
    - if removed or inactive, control of cell cycle gone & uncontrolled cell division results
  258. 258Cell Death- apoptosis = programmed cell death
    - fast, continuous, orderly, contained destruction
    - packages cellular remnants into membrane enclosed pieces & are removed
    - begins w/ "death receptor" on cell's membrane
    *becomes activated w/ dying cell
    * ex: sunburn

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Erstellt von
Wise Alice
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  • Erstellt von ajudkins · 26 Jan 2015
  • Kopiert von Wise Alice · 15 Feb 2017
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