Methods

Methods

1. Definitions

   • Primary data - the sociologist collects this first hand by themselves by themselves e.g. interviews, questionaires.
   • Secondary data - this already exists it has been collected by someone else, but the sociologist uses it in their research e.g. official status.
   • Qualitative - this is rich, deep, written data; includes feelings, opinions, thoughts e.g. unstructured interviews.
   • Quantitative - this is numerical data; we can establish trends and patterns e.g. official statistics.

2. P.E.T

   • Practical Factors
     • Research opportunity: an opportunity to carry out research may appear unexpectedly e.g. Patrick got offered the chance to study a criminal gang; he had no time to prepare, and so had to use participant observation
     • Subject matter - the topic you are researching determines the method you use
     • Personal skills and characteristics - the sociologist's personality will influence the choice of method and topic e.g. a shy person may not want to conduct interviews.
     • Funding bodies - businesses and other organisations that require the results in a particular form. They will tell the sociologist the topic to study and the method to use.
     • Time and Money - different methods will take different lengths of time and cost different amounts e.g. large scale interviews will cost a lot as they will require a large team.
   • Ethical Factors
     • These are guidelines that a sociologist must follow (set by the BSA) when carrying out research; they are to protect themselves and the participants.
     • Informed consent: a letter that is written to the participants explaining the research; Ps have to sign it to agree to participate. For vulnerable groups or under 16s, career/parent/guardian's signature is required.
     • Confidentiality: Ps names must be changed.
     • Deception: avoid lying to Ps; however if lying is necessary, it must be addressed in the de-brief.
     • De-brief: you tell them all about the results; this happens at the end of the research, and overcomes any breaks in the ethical guidelines.
     • Privacy: all documents must be locked away/password protected.
     • Protection from physical/psychological harm: the research must handle traumatic subjects delicately, and mustn't put Ps through anything physically harmful.
     • Right to withdrawal: A P can leave the research at any time.
     • AO2: Milgram Experiment: no right to withdrawal, confidentiality, deception, psychological harm, no consent; however, he overcame these by using a debrief.
   • Theoretical Factors
     • Feminists: They would want to study the position of women, patriarchy and women's oppression. They would use interpretivist, qualitative methods e.g. participation observation, unstructured interviews.
     • Marxist: they will study class, exploitation and capitalism. They use positivist, quantitative methods e.g. questionaires and experiments. They believe sociology is scientific and can be studied in a scientific way.
     • Functionalists: they will study norms and values, the family, religion and how institutions work together. They use positivist, quantitative methods e.g. experiments, questionaires. Like Marxists, they view sociology as scientific.

3. Questionnaires

   • Questionnaires are a type of social survey - a way of asking people questions (the other being interviews). A questionnaire is a list of preset questions; all respondents are asked the same questions. They are cheap, fast, and can obtain large amounts of data e.g. the census.
   • All respondents must be given the same questions, so they can be compared. The questions should be clear and simple. They should be short, with a clear layout and instructions. They should start with simplistic questions before moving on to more complex ones. Avoid leading questions: ones that push you into a certain answer e.g. why do you think sex before marriage is bad. Avoid technical and offensive language. In closed questionnaires, give enough alternative answers, including 'I don't know.'
   • Precoded (closed) questionnaires: highly structures, closed questions with a choice of answers - e.g. 'what is your gender' with the options 'male,' 'female,' 'other.'. These are used by positivists as they gain qualitative data.
   • Open questionnaires have no pre-set answers, Ps write their own, e.g. 'what is your diet?' with space to answer. These are used by interpretivists as they gain qualitative data.
   • Questionnaires can be distributed via the post, online, email, phone and face-to face. A self completion questionaire is filled in by the respondent.
   • Strengths of questionnaires.
     • Practical - quick to complete
     • Produces standardized data.
     • Can compare between different groups.
     • Large samples ensure representation.
     • Results are reliable (repeatable).
     • Can be used to test hypothesis, and can establish cause and effect.
     • Unbiased - research's involvement is kept to a minimum.
     • Few ethical issues involved - people can simply refuse to answer the questions.
     • Easy to produce quantitative data
   • Weaknesses of questionnaires
     • Questions may not be clear to respondents.
     • Extra questions cannot be added, or expanded.
     • Researcher bias through the questions.
     • Interpretivists: lack validity.
     • The respondents may not receive the questionnaire (practical).
     • Questionnaires are snapshots - can only show opinions at that time.
     • Respondents may lie or try to please the researcher.
   • Postal questionnaires
     • AO2: Shere Hite - Sent out 100,000 questionnaires across America via the post to study love, passion and emotional violence. However, they only received 4.5% back.
     • Weaknesses of postal questionnaires: low response rate, dishonesty leads to invalidity, no way of knowing if the target person completed the questionnaire, no researcher present to explain, those with low literacy skills may struggle to complete it.
     • Strengths of postal questionnaires: cheap, collects a large amount of data, results are quick, no rush to answer, anonymous meaning embarrassing or personal questions are more likely to be answered, no interviewer bias

4. Interviews

   • Can be conducted face-to-face, over the phone, with individuals or small groups. There are 4 types of interview: structured, unstructured, semi-structured and focus groups.
   • Semi-structured interviews: They lie between structured and unstructured interviews; each interviewer has the same set of questions but they can probe for more information e.g. asking 'what do you mean?'
   • Structured interviews
     • Used by positivists as they gain quantitative data.
     • They are based on structured questions outlined in the interview schedule.
     • The interviewer asks the same question in the same order and does not probe beyond the answer given.
     • AO2: Young & Willmott - studied extended families in east London; 993 people studied; interviews were formal and standardised - questions were precise and factual, with a limited range of alternative answers, and on topics like people's age, job, religion etc.
     • Strengths of structured interviews: quick to compare; literacy problems overcome; reliable (standardised and repeatable); easy to put into quantitative form; no interviewer bias.
     • Weaknesses of structured interviews: interview schedule imposes a limit on what the respondent can say (limited depth); time consuming; expensive; cannot establish a rapport therefore making it hard to ask about sensitive topics; possibility of interviewer bias; Graham argued structured interviews are patriarchal and paint a distorted, invalid picture of women's experiences - researchers are in control and this mirrors women's subordination within society, making it hard for women to express their views.
   • Unstructured interviews
     • Used by interpretivists to gain qualitative data - there are no preset questions, just broad topics to discuss.
     • Open questions are asked as the interviewer is aiming to gain depth on the respondent's feelings and opinions.
     • AO2: Dobash and Dobash - used unstructured interviews to study domestic violence; the empathy of the interviewer allowed the respondent to speak about their abuse.
     • Strengths: valid data; can probe for more information; opens new lines of enquiry; questions can be clarified and explained; rapport can be established; verstehen is achieved; favoured by feminists.
     • Weaknesses: time consuming; expensive; less reliable than structured interviews; difficult to replicate; difficult to compare; people could lie.
   • Focus groups
     • Used by interpretivists to gain qualitative data.
     • This is a group interview focusing on a topic; feelings, experiences and opinions are drawn out.
     • 10-12 people.
     • AO2: Willis - used a group to study young working class boys ('lads') and schooling.

5. Participant observation

   • Used by interpretivists to gain qualitative data.
   • Ethnographic approach - when the researcher joins in with the group that they are studying.
   • Verstehan acheived - see the world through the participant's eyes.
   • AO2: Griffin - 'Black Like Me:' A covert participant observation study in 1959. Griffin, a white man, used sun lamps and medication to change his skin tone and pass as an African American; he travelled around the southern US to experience first hand the racism of the time. Griffin rejected the use of interviews because he feared the racist culture of the time would make African American's lie to please white people and prevent any trouble. Advantages: gained insight and depth; high in validity; verstehan acheived. Disadvantages: not representative; not reliable; ethical issues - potential for harm.
   • Stages of PO
     • 1) Gain access to a group you wish to observe: you need to share the same person characteristics e.g. gender, age, ethnicity.
     • 2) Staying in: you must develop trust and cooperation to continue your observation.
     • 3) Getting out: you must leave the group without damaging relationships and become detached enough to write up your research.
     • Researchers must take care not to 'go native' - become too involved with the group that they don't want to go back to their old life.
     • AO2: Mcintyre - Football Hooliganism: studied hooligans and the Chelsea Headhunters
   • Covert: this is where the researchers role is covered up and the group don't know they're being researched. The researcher has to become a full participant; they make have to do illegal activities. There are many ethical issues but it avoids the Hawthorne effect.
   • Overt: this is when the researcher is open and the group know that they are being studied. You can ask questions openly and avoid illegal behaviour. It is more ethical, but the Hawthorne effect may occur.