2.1 Content

2.1 Content

1. Memory

   • The Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)
     • Three components, central executive that deals with running of the memory system. Two slave systems to deal with verbal and visual information, Phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
     • Central Executive, limited capacity but able to deal with different types of sensory information (modality free). Defined as an attentional controller with the capacity to focus, divide and switch attention.
     • Phonological loop, slave system deals with the temporary storage of verbal information. Two components, Phonological store and articulatory rehearsal system.
       • Phonological store can explain the phonological similarity effect, more difficult to remember similar sounding words. Not the same for semantic info, shows the phonological store relies of acoustic encoding for storage.
         • Articulatory rehearsal system used to explain word length effect. Longer words filled up the capacity of the system, resulting in decay of earlier words in a list.
       • Showed with research into Italian Woman (VP), unable to retain vocab from a different language, suggesting the loop to have evolved for language acquisition.
     • Visuospatial sketchpad (VSSP) slave system to temporarily hold and manipulate verbal and spatial information. VSSO can deal with spatial info either by directly observing images or by retrieving visuospatial information from LTM.
       • Research to distinguish between visual and spatial components uses tasks that test memory span. Corsi block tapping task, repeating sequences of blocks that light up.
     • Later added fourth component, Episodic Buffer, proposed as a limited capacity storage system that could integrate info between subcomponents and feed into and retrieve info from LTM.
   • The Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)
     • Made up of three basic stores, sensory register, short term store and long term store.
       • Sensory is information coming from the five senses, this information must be attended to in order to keep hold of the item, otherwise it will decay after a very brief moment.
     • Attended information from the sensory register will then be transferred to the short term store. Where it will be temporarily held for a period of 15-30 seconds.
       • After this time period information will decay completely unless it can be maintained through rehearsal. Short term memory is capable of holding 7, plus or minus two items.
       • Phonological similarity effect showed that encoding of information in short term memory is primarily acoustic (auditory or verbal)
     • Information can then be transferred to long term memory by rehearsal, although this would leave a relatively weak memory trace. More durable trace can be achieved by mnemonic to increase strength of transfer.
       • Tip of the tongue, retrieving a partial copy of the memory trace, which can help to gain access to more complete copy in long-term memory.
         • Duration of long term is potentially a lifetime, and capacity is potentially infinite.
     • Evidence to support distinction of two stores comes from studies of brain damaged patients, HM had severe impairment to LTM, yet STM was largely intact. Also same was showed by Clive Wearing.
       • Serial position effect showed from information in a list that more words recalled from start (Primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) with less in the middle. Start due to rehearsal in LTM, end due to still being processed in STM
       • Difference in the type of coding between the stores, also indicates the two stores being separate. Difficulty with acoustic and semantic word use.
       • Can be seen as overly simplistic view of memory, cannot explain performance on dual task experiments. Emphasis put on rehearsal for transfer of information from STM to LTM. Rehearsal is not essential for memory, another example would be use of imagery.
   • Explanation of Long Term Memory (Tulving, 1972)
     • Semantic memory represents a mental encyclopaedia, storing facts. Memories are associated with other facts that link concepts (e.g. School and learning)
     • Episodic memory described as a mental diary. Receives and stores info about events and experiences. Linked to time and context.
     • Episodic memory dependant on time referencing. Events are linked to the the time in which they occurred. Semantic detached from any temporal link, factual info can be recalled without reference to when it was learned.
     • Input into episodic is continuous, experience a whole episode in some temporal frame of reference. Whereas factual info can be stored independently and pieced together in a temporal form.
     • Recall of episodic is dependent on the context in which the event was initially learned. Context aids retrieval, whereas semantic is not dependant on context in which is learnt. And so not dependant on context to aid recall.
       • Episodic memories were susceptible to transformation on recall, yet recall of facts does interfere with that knowledge.
     • Semantic can operate independent of episodic. However episodic memory unlikely to operate without semantic as you need to draw on previous knowledge. Despite overlap, they can be treated as separate independent stores.
   • Reconstructive Memory (Bartlett, 1932)
     • Series of experiments to test memory for shapes/objects. Suggested that perception of the shape or object determined how it was remembered
       • Imaging, using ink blots, noticed participants 'rummaged about' their own stored images to find one that best fit the ink blot pattern they saw.
         • Effort after meaning, participants spent effort in trying to connect a stimulus with knowledge or experience they possess.
     • 'War of the ghosts', chosen due to being culturally unfamiliar, lacked rational order, dramatic nature, somewhat supernatural conclusion.
       • Each participant read the story twice and repeated reproduction was used to test the effect of time lapse on recall.
         • Concluded that memory is reconstructed each time it is recalled. Rarely accurate, prone to distortion, rationalisation, transformation and simplification.
           • Previous knowledge was used to interpret information to be stored and to actively reconstruct memories to be recalled.
     • Schemes are parcels of stored knowledge or a mental representation of information about a specific event or object.
       • Fixed and variable information.
       • We do not remember all that we perceive, we therefore draw on our schema when we recall an event to fill in the gaps.
         • Means that recall is an active reconstruction of an event strongly influenced by previously stored knowledge, expectations and beliefs.
     • Criticised for the use of 'the war of the ghosts' seen as having little relevance to everyday memory.
       • However repeated experiments showed the same effects.
       • Further criticism for seeing memory as inaccurate and flawed. Lead to experiments into eyewitnesses.

2. Individual Differences

   • Processing speed differs between individuals. Speed and capacity can be affected by age, digit span shows the increase of capacity with age.
   • Reconstructive memory suggests we all have similar schemas, but can be heavily influenced by experience. Experience based perception will affect how things are remembered and development of schema will affect how we recall information.
   • Episodic memory is individual to the person as a collection of memories of their own life, like autobiographical memory.
     • Palombo et al. conducted Survery of Autobiographical memory. Showed individuals who scored high or low on episodic memory also scored high or low on semantic, showing either good or poor overall memory. Found men scored higher on spatial memory. Self reported depression scored low on sem and epi memory.

3. Developmental

   • Dyslexia
     • Reading disorder, problems to recognise and decode printed words at a level expected for the individuals age.
       • More prominent in boys, effects 3-6% of children. Characterised as having particular difficulty with speech sounds (phonology)
     • Poor verbal short term memory. Evidence from phonological similarity effect and word length effect.
     • McDougall et al. (1994) divided children into three groups: Poor, moderate and good readers.
       • Poor readers showed lower memory span for words and low reading rate.
       • Good can articulate quickly to a greater number of words represented phonologically in STM
       • Poor readers sound out words slowly, leading to fewer words being held in STM.
     • Alloway et al. (2009) Children with dyslexia have difficulty in processing and remembering speech sounds because of poor working memory.
       • Cannot hold speech sounds in working memory long enough to form a word. Children showed STM deficits that could be the cause of reading problems. Smith-Spark et al. (2010) showed in adults with dyslexia unimpaired spatial working memory but impaired verbal.
   • Alzheimer's Disease
     • Progressive, degenerative disorder associated with ageing. Effects 1 in 20, usually occurs after 65 years old.
       • Characterised by memory, concentration loss and confusion that progressively become worse.
     • Normal ageing processed results in loss of general cognitive functioning. Alzheimers appears to selectively impair certain cognitive systems rather than globally. Affects working memory, central executive functioning making complex tasks difficult to coordinate and visuospatial processing impaired.
     • Major characteristic is inability to recall autobiographical information from episodic memory, thus affects both STM and LTM recall. Extent of memory loss is associated with the depletion of brain matter. Greater the brain damage, more significant the impairment.