Chapter 11: Human Development Across the Life Span

Chapter 11: Human Development Across the Life Span

1. Progress before Birth: Prenatal Development

   • The Course of Prenatal Development: 3 Prenatal Stages
     • 1) Germinal Stage: First phase phase of the prenatal development encompassing the first two weeks. During implantation the placenta begins to form, which is membrane that passes nutrients and oxygen from the bloodstream to the fetus and allow waste to pass out to the mother.
       • 2) Embryonic Stage: is the second stage, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month during prenatal development. Here, the fetus is called an Embryo, and vital periods of development occur.
         • 3) Fetal Stage: the 3rd stage of prenatal development lasting from two months until birth occurs. The age of viability occurs between 22 and 26 weeks, which is the period of survivable premature birth.
   • Environmental Factors & Prenatal Development
     • Teratogens = any external agents such as drugs or viruses that can harm a fetus or embryo.
       • MATERNAL DRUG USE: most drugs consumed pass through the placenta. Such as Cocaine, associated with birth and cognitive development issues. FAS is the most common cause of intellectual disability. Tobacco increases risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, prematurity, and SIDS, furthermore, it is associated with slower than average cognitive development, attention deficits, hyperactivity, and conduct problems.
         • MATERNAL ILLNESS & EXPOSURE TO TOXINS: the placenta screens out a number of infectious agents but not all, where the nature of any damage depends partially on contraction. Environmental toxins can impact the fetus, such as air pollution linked to cognitive impairments at age 5, and the chemical in FR clothing(Fire Retardant) correlates with slower mental and physical development up to age 6
           • MATERNAL NUTRITION & EMOTIONS: The fetus responds to stress placed upon the mother and research has shown this can upset the hormonal balance during development, and is associated with behavior problems. Furthermore, malnutrition both moderate and sever have neurological impacts, with severe malnutrition displaying insufficient body-weight.
             • FETAL ORIGINS OF DISEASE: recent research has begun to explore the link between prenatal factors and adults' physical and mental health. Such at prenatal malnutrition, which has been linked to increased vulnerability to schizophrenia. Low birth rate increases risk for heart disease, behaviour problems, and mood disorders.
   • Zygote = One celled organism formed by the union of sperm and egg,. within 36hrs rapid cell division occurs.
   • Prenatal Period = Conception to birth

2. The wondrous Years of Childhood

   • Exploring the World: Motor Development
     • Motor skills refer to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activites
       • BASIC PRINCIPLES: 1)The cephalocaudal trend- the head-to-foot direction of motor development 2) The Proximodistal trend is the centre-outward direction of motor development. Furthermore, infants are active agents in the process that is Maturation- the development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint.
         • UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENTAL NORMS: developmental norms indicate the median age at which individuals display various behaviours and abilities. However, it is important to note that variation among achievement of landmarks is normal.
           • CULTURAL VARIANCE AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE: Early motor development depends to a considerable extent on maturation. Later motor development is more specialized and influences by culture.
   • Easy & Difficult Babies: Differences in Temperament
     • Temperamant refers to characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity.
       • Longitudinal Study Design is where investigators observe one group of participants repeatedly over time, more sensitive to developmental changes.
         • Cross-Sectional Study Design is when investigators compare groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time.
           • Cohort Effects occur when differences between age groups are due to them growing up in different time periods.
             • Thomas & Chess-temperamental individuality is established by 2-3 months of age. 3 basic Temperamental Styles: 1) 40% are easy-children( happy, eating/sleeping healthy) 2) 15% are Slow-to-warm-up children ( less cheery, irregular sleeping/eating patterns) 3) 10% are Difficult Children (glum, erratic sleeping/eating patterns, irritable). Remaining 35% show mixtures of all 3
               • Kagan studies on child temperament found: 15-20% are inhibited temperament(shyness, timidity, wariness of unfamiliar) is more prevalent among Chinese culture, 25-30% uninhibited temperament (less restrained, little trepidation, risk for anxiety and mood disorders). Individual differences in temperament are influenced by both heredity and environment.
   • Early Emotional Development: Attachment
     • Early on in development, infants start differentiating between social and nonsocial aspects of the world.
       • Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers. This process is not instantaneous, as preference shows at 6-8 weeks of age. Here Separation anxiety manifests, which is emotional distress seen in many infants when they are seperated from people whom they have formed an attachment
         • THEORIES OF ATTACHMENT: previous aims were focused on the Survival Value of attachment whereas contemporary research focuses more on the Reproductive Fitness.
           • PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT: (Ainsworth) Strange Situation procedure, in which infants are exposed to a series of eight separation and reunion episodes to asses the quality of their attachment. Found that attachments follow 4 patterns; 1)secure attachment 2) anxious-ambivalent attachment 3) avoided attachment 4) organized-disoriented attachment. However the type of attachment that emerges depends on the nature of the infant temperament and parent sensitivity. The attachment experiences form internal working models of the dynamics of close relationships that influence their future interactoins with a wide range of people
             • CULTURE AND ATTACHMENT:separation anxiety is relatively average among global cultures, with variation occurring in how many children fall into a certain category described by Ainsworth
   • Personality Development in Childhood
     • Stage is a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain capacities become established. Stage theories assume 3 directives; 1) progress through specified stages in a particular order because each stage builds on the previous stage 2) progress is strongly related to age & 3) development is marked by make discontinuities that usher in dramatic transitions in behaviour.
       • ERIKSON'S STAGE THEORY: focuses on psychosocial crisis involving transitions in important social relationships. Each stage is like a tug of war that determined subsequent balance between opposing polarities in personality.
         • Erkison's 8 stages by the types of questions that arise: 1) Trust vs Mistrust = is my world predictable?, 2) Autonomy vs Shame & doubt = do i rely on others?, 3) Initiative vs Guilt = am i good or bad?, 4) Industry vs Inferiority = am i competent or worthless, 5) Identity vs Confusion = Who am i? where am i going?, 6) Intimacy vs Isolation = will i share my life with someone else or live alone?, 7) Generativity vs Self-absorbtion = Willi produce anything of value?, 8) Integrity vs Despair = Have i lived a full life?
           • EVALUATING ERKISON'S THEORY: Although not suited for ex pplaining enormous personality differences, it does well in depicting psycosocial development as it accounts for both continuity and transition
   • The Growth of Thought: Cognitive Development
     • Cognitive develpment refers to transition in youngsters patterns of thinking, including reasoning remembering, and problem solving.
       • OVERVIEW OF PIAGET'S STAGE THEORY: Piagets 4 stage theory recognizes variation among transitional ages but states that all progress in the same order. Children progress in their thinking though process called Assimilation ( involves interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them. Whereas Accommodation ( Involves changing existing mental structure to explain new experiences) is contrast to assimilation.
         • SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD: Object permanence develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.
           • PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD: Conservation is piagets term for the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance. Centration is the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other imprtant aspects. Irreversibility is the inability to envision reversing an action. Egocentrism in thinking is characterized by limited ability to share another persons viewpoint.. Animism is the believe that all things are living
             • EVALUATING PIAGET'S THEORY: 3 Criticisms:; 1) Underestimation of young children's cognitive abilities, 2) not account for individual differences in development, 3) underestimated the role of environment focusing heavily on maturation. Although not flawless, Piaget's theory provides much groundwork for future studies.
               • NEO-PIAGETIAN THEORIES: Pascal-Leone introduce the term Neo-Piagetian as he studied with Piaget, and suggested that an increase in information processing capacity forms the basis of cognitive development, where progressive mental tasks increase the demand imposed on the child where success happens only if they possess the required mental power. Robbie case is known for his staircase model of development and the concept of central processing structures, and suggests a vital issue on whether development can be coneptualized in terms of the development of an individual rather than generalized intellectual attribute or factor, or a set of more discrete aspects.
             • VYGOSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY: focused on thought & language, began formulating his theory around same time as Piaget, but due to his untimely death and political atmosphere, an english version of his work was not available until 1986. Vygotsky placed emphasis on how cognitive development is fulled by social interactions with instituitions and role models, also that culture was a great influence in cognitive growth. Furthermore he argued that language aquisition plays a crucial role in fostering cognitive development, and that learning is like an apprenticeship. The apprentice theory uses the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which is the gap between what a learner can accomplish alone and what he or she can achieve with guidance from more skilled partners. And that Scaffolding facilitates learning, where scaffolding occurs when the assitsance provided to a child is adjusted to the learners progresses. Moreover Vygotsky viewed language as the foundation for cognitive processes.
               • ARE SOME COGNITIVE ABILITIES INNATE?: Karen Wynn, using the habituation-dishabituation design, completed a study which showed infants understand the addition and subtraction of small whole numbers, with 9month-old being capable of understanding 5+5=10 & 10-5=5. Habituation is a gradual reduction of a response when a stimulus event is presented repeatedly. Dishabotuation occurs if a new stimulus elicits an increase in the strength of habituated response. Evolutionary & Nativists both agree there are certain basic cognitive abilities built into the human neural network. However Nativists assert that humans' are prewired and seek to find what is prewired and what is not, whereas Evolutionary theorists agree with being prewired but instead seek why?
                 • CRITICAL PERIODS IN DEVELOPMENT: The idea that there are age ranges/ time periods essential for the development of particular abilities such as language. Moreover, there is more support for so called Sensitive or Critical periods of development. Theory of the mind, is an area of recent research focusing on how young children comprehend and understand the thoughts and behaviour's of those around them, and asserts that an eventual connection will be made which generates a more complete understanding of how and why others think and do what they do.
   • The Development of Moral Reasoning
     • Morality involves being able to discern right from wrong and behave accordingly, Kohlberg devised way's to test such value, by providing a person with a moral dilemma such as assisted suicide and monitoring their response.
     • KOHLBERG'S STAGE THEORY: focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour. Kohlberg found that individuals progress through a series of 3 levels of moral development; younger children = preconventional, Older children = conventional , and Adolescence = postconventional.
       • EVALUATING KOHLBERG'S THEORY: there is skepticism regarding the 6th stage as very few people make it there. Furthermore, there are 4 criticisms surrounding Kohlberg's Theory; 1) when someone displays more than one stage, it results in mixing and creates problems for any stage theory. 2) Kohlberg;s dilemma's reflect Western Culture, which is more liberal. 3) focuses on interpersonal conflicts rather than the significance of emotions, 4) male biased, as the study was done with primarily male subjects.

3. The Transition to Adolescence

   • Physiological Changes
     • The phase of rapid growth in height & weight is known as the Adolescent Growth Spurt, and it is not known what exactly triggers this but, recent evidence suggest rising Leptin levels. Pubescence is used to describe the 2yr span preceding puberty, during which the changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place. Secondary sex characteristics refer to physical features that distinguish one sex from another but are not essential for reproduction. Puberty is the stage during which sexual functions reach maturity which marks the beginning of adolescence.. Primary sex characteristics refer to the structure vital for reproduction to occur. Menarche is the first occurence of menstruation. Todays generation is reaching and completing puberty faster, and studies indicate increased risks for high-risk behaviour and mood disorders.
   • Neurodevelopment: The Teen Brain
     • Massive amounts of change occur during adolescence, including increased Synaptic Pruning and Myelinization, more so in the Prefrontal Cortex as this region continues to develop in the mid 20s. The Prefrontal Cortex is known as the executive control centre, and the immaturity of such high level cognitive function is one factor for increased risk-taking behaviour, another is the presence of peer's.
   • Time of Turmoil?
     • Turbulence and turmoil are not universal features of adolescence, however challenging adaptations do have to made during this period, such as the struggle for solid sense of identity. It is known culture plays a role in creating Identity, and among First Nations there seems to be a strong linear relationship between suicide rates and cultural factors, with lower rates showing in bands who worked to preserve their culture and produced positice practices.
   • The Search for Identity
     • Adolescence struggle with forming a clear sense of identity, and the struggle for a sense of identity routinely extends into young adulthood. James Marcia stated that the presence or absence of a sense of commitment and a sense of crisis can combine to produce four Identity Statuses. Erkison's 5th stage also encompasses the beginning of the struggle for identity.
   • Emerging Adulthood as a New Developmental Stage
     • Jeffery Arnett claims that modern society has created socioeconomic strain an barriers, in addition with lengthier periods of self-exploration to produce a new phase of development called Emerging Adulthood ( 18-25) and he states thatit tends to be time of great optimism about ones future. This emerging adulthood is characerized by the fact that most young adult's this age dont quite recognize themselves as adults yet.
   • Adolescence is not universal across all cultures, as some go from childhood to adulthood. Moreover, adolescence is time of vital physical & psychological growth.

4. The Expanse of Adulthood

   • Personality Development
     • adult personality development has been dominated by the question: How stable is personality over the life span?
     • THE QUESTION OF STABILITY: personality in adulthood is characterized by both Stability & Change. Moreover, upon examination of raw scores there is meaningful developmental trends, such as the decline of neuroticism and incline in agreeableness. Furthermore, self-esteem seems to peak at age 60 for both men and women, and declines after that.
       • ERIKSON'S VIEW OF ADULTHOOD: Erikson divided adulthood into 3 stages; Early Adulthood = Intimacy vs Isolation; Middle Adulthood= generativity vs self-absorption; Late Adulthood = Integrity vs Despair. Research has shown support for increased generativity between young adulthood and middle age.
   • Transitions in Family Life
     • predictable patterns of development can be seen in families, just as they can in individuals. The Family Life Cycle is a sequence of stages that families tend to progress through. Shifting social trends are altering the traditional Family life cycle. The transitional period between emerging from ones family and creating ones own family have been prolonged more and more by individuals.
     • ADJUSTING TO MARRIAGE: 8-14% of newlyweds score in the distressed range on measures of martial satisfaction. In addition it would seem changes in the composition of population of people who cohabit may be altering the effect of cohabitation on martial stability. A major source of conflict in new mariiages is the negotiation of marital roles in relation to career commitments, with most women not expecting a 50-50 split and thus do not view it as unfair. However, there has been an increase in the contribution of men that was not evident before.
     • ADJUSTING TO PARENTHOOD: a review of decades of research found 3 consistent trends; 1) parents exhibit lower marital satisfaction than comparable nonparents, 2) Mothers of infants report the steepest decline in marital satisfaction , 3) the more children couples have the lower their marital satisfaction. The key to making this less stressful is setting realistic expectations about parental responsibilities.
     • ADJUSTING TO THE EMPTY NEST: there is and associated increase in marital satisfaction after all the children have matured and established themselves, as this could be from the enjoyment of time spent together alone. However, parents may experience problems with so called boomerang children- those who leave then return after the parents have transitioned and become accustomed to the Empty Nest.
   • Aging and Physiological Changes
     • Suicide rate for seniors have been steadily increasing over the years which is raising an alarming concern. Furthermore, some physical attributes associated with aging include: hair loss, increased proportion of body fat, decreased muscle tissue. In the sensory domain: eyesight fades with age, sensitivity to colour, contrast, illumination, and overal visual acuity also decline, hearing also declines, more so in men. Furthermore, women experience menopause, which is associated with a higher risk for depression.
   • Aging and Neural Changes
     • Brain weight & tissue decline usually after 60yr of age. This reflects the decrease in active neurons in some areas of the brain and shrinkage of still active-neurons, this loss of neurons is not a factor in Dementia ( an abnormal condition marked multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment) as it is caused by a variety of diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's & Huntington's to name a few.
   • Aging and Cognitive Changes
     • Fluid Intelligence (basic information-processing skills) along with episodic & working memory are much more likely to decline with age then Crystalized Intelligence ( application of accumulated knowledge) and, procedural and semantic memory.

5. Applications

   • Personal
     • Gender differences are actual disparities between the sexes in typical behavior or average ability. and there are fewer in number and far more complex than stereotype would suggest.
   • Critical Thinking
     • Skill: Understanding the limitations of correlational evidence
       • Description: The critical thinker understands that a correlation between two variables does not demonstrate a causal link.
       • Skill: Looking for alternative explanations for findings and evidence
         • Description: In evaluating explanations, the critical thinker explores whether or not there are other explanations that could account for the findings.
         • Skill: Recognizing and avoiding common fallacies such as irrelevant reasons, circular reasoning, slippery slope, weak anologies, and false dichotomies.
           • Critical thinker is vigilant about conclusions based on unrelated premises, or rewording of premises, unwarrented predictions that things will spin out of control, superficial anologies and contrived dichotomies.

6. Two themes that permeate the study of devleopment: Transition & Continuity

   • Iqbal Masih was sold at 4yr of age to repay family debt, he later escaped this fate on his own and establishing a voice for Child Rights. However, he was murdered before being able to carry on his career, though his legacy lives on through the Free The Children Organization founded by Craig Keilburger
     • Development is the sequence of age related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death . The life span is divided into 4 broad periods: 1) Prenatal 2) Childhood 3) Adolescence 4) Adulthood

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