Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

1. Unconditioned stimulus (US):

   • A stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training (natural reflexive response). Example: Food

2. Unconditioned response (UR):

   • The observable response that is produced automatically, prior to training, on presentation of US. Example: Salivation

3. Conditioned stimulus (CS):

   • Neutral stimulus that is paired with the US during classical conditioning E.g. Bell

4. Conditioned response (CR):

   • The acquired response produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the US. E.g. Dog salivates (CR) when hearing the feeder’s footsteps (CS)

5. Acquisition: acquiring (learning) the new behaviour Usually something novel, unusual or very intense that results in classical conditioning. Timing is another factor. Stimulus contiguity – how close the stimuli are together. E.g. the CS (bell) and the UCS (food)

6. Extinction: Presenting a CS repeatedly, after conditioning, without the US, resulting in no response. E.g. Food no longer follows a bell, so dog gradually stops salivating in response to the bell

7. Spontaneous Recovery: Recovery of an extinguished CR after a period of nonexposure to the CS - Often the CR isn’t as strong as it once was.

8. Renewal Effect: If a response is extinguished in a different environment from where it was acquired, it will reappear once the animal or person is returned to the original environment.

9. Stimulus generalization: Responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established CS In this case, a similar stimulus leads to a similar CR...

   • Things that look, sound, or feel similar often share significant properties.. Example:   Little Albert was initially not afraid of a white rat presented to him by John Watson.  A loud noise is paired with the white rat and the baby becomes afraid of it.  Then Little Albert is shown other furry items rabbit, Santa Claus beard, fur coat and is afraid of other similar objects.  We say this was generalized to the similar objects. if you had a bad experience in the dentist’s chair, the sound of a neighbour’s high-speed drill may make you feel uncomfortable. People with panic disorder may overgeneralize

10. Stimulus Discrimination: Responding differently to a new stimulus than one responds to established CS When stimuli share properties, for example, two tones of a similar pitch, people often need to learn to discriminate.

11. Higher Order Conditioning After a conditioned stimulus reliably elicits a response, this conditioned stimulus can be paired with another stimuli which also elicits the same response. If Pavlov had put on a red light each time he rang the bell, the dogs would begin to salivate to the red light even though the red light was never paired with the meat.

12. Operant Conditioning is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences of their own voluntary actions Example: Learning that studying leads to a good exam grade

13. Law of Effect (Thorndike) If a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened; if followed by an unsatisfying consequence, it will be weakened

14. B.F. Skinner took the a perspective on human and animal behaviour that emphasizes explaining behaviour in terms of environmental events and that minimized the use of internal explanations, like thoughts, beliefs, and intentions

15. Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases a person or animal’s tendency to make that response. E.g. you put your money in a pop machine and get a pop (reinforcer) so you do it again the next time you want a pop.

16. Acquisition In operant conditioning, acquisition also refers to the initial stage of learning a new response. Some responses are more complex and require a process called shaping. Shaping occurs when rewards are given for behaviour that is closer and closer to the desired end result.

17. Extinction: Response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. When the reinforcer is withdrawn, the animal or person often increases the behavior. Then the behavior decreases gradually. E.g. The rat believes that pressing a lever dispenses food so presses more in case it will continue. Children will do the same thing if a parent is used to buying a child candies in a store to get them to stop crying. If the parent absolutely refuses, the child will cry harder until they see that the parent definitely will not reinforce them.

    • Resistance to extinction: sometimes you want resistance (e.g. positive behaviours) Schedules of reinforcement affect this.

18. Primary reinforcers – events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. For humans, food, water, warmth, sex, affection involving bodily contact.

    • Secondary or conditioned, reinforcers – associated with primary reinforcers and so acquire reinforcing qualities. E.g. money, good grades, attention.

19. Ratio Schedules:

    • Fixed-Ratio Schedules Number of responses required for reinforcement stays the same Example: Salesperson paid for every 10 sales Tend to produce steady, consistent rates of responding, but might stop for a period after reinforcement Extinction when reinforcement no longer given
    • Variable-Ratio Schedules A certain number of responses required for reinforcement, but this number changes Example: Salesperson paid after some number of sales, but doesn’t know how many Extinction takes much longer

20. Interval Schedules:

    • Fixed-interval: Reinforcement delivered for first response after a fixed allotment of time Example: Salesperson paid for first sale in each week, but not others until next week begins Tend to produce low rates of responding and a “Scalloping” pattern
      • Variable-interval: Allotted time before a response will yield reinforcement changes Example: Salesperson paid for first sale on randomly chosen day.

21. Positive Reinforcement: Increase in responding is due to giving something good or rewarding E.g. If you study hard, you get a good mark so you study hard again.

22. Negative Reinforcement: Increased responding is due to removing something bad (aversive) E.g you have a headache and take an aspirin and the headache goes away. So whenever you have a headache again, you take an aspirin