Memory

Memory

1. coding, capacity & duration

   • Capacity
     • Digit span - Jacob 9.3 digits 7.3 letters
       • Span of memory + chunking - Miller 7+/- 2 Things come in chunks of 7 e.g. days in the week, notes on a scale 5 words and 5 letters are easy to recall, so we tend to chunk information in 5s.
   • Duration
     • Bahrick - LTM ● Yearbook photo albums ● 15 years on - 90% name recall ● 48 years on - 70% name recall ● 34 years on - 90% face recall ● 48 years on - 40% face recall
       • Peterson + Peterson STM ● Random letter triad ● Given a number to count back from ● Asked to recall the triad after intervals of: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18
         • 3s interval - 80% correct 9s interval - 30% correct 18s interval - 10% correct
   • Coding
     • Baddeley ● List of words to four groups: □ G1 - acoustically similar e.g. cat, cab, can □ G2 - acoustically dissimilar e.g. pit, few, cow □ G3 - semantically similar e.g. great, large, big □ G4 - semantically dissimilar e.g. good, huge, hot
       • ●Stort term memory - worse with acoustically similar, not with dissimilar. Semantically similar words had no effect. ●Long term memory - worse with semantically similar than dissimilar. Acoustic made no difference.
         • STM - acoustic coding LTM - semantic coding

2. Multi-Store Model of memory - Atkinson & Shiffrin

   • Sensory register ● Iconic + echoic stores ● Very brief duration - miliseconds ● High capacity ● Information transfers to the STM through attention
   • STM ● Limited capacity (7+/-2) ● Duration up to 30s ● Mainly acoustic coding ● Transfer to LTM through rehearsal ● Maintains in STM through maintenance-rehearsal
   • LTM ● Unlimited capacity + duration ● Mainly semantic coding ● Created through prolonged rehearsal (elaborative)

3. Types of LTM - Tulving

   • Procedural ● Our memory for automatic and unskilled behaviours, how we do things. Our actions are hard to explain to others but we know how to do them.
   • Semantic ● Contains our memories and knowledge of the world like an encyclopedia or a dictionary. Memories aren't usually time stamped but we recall when they happened.
   • Episodic ● Memory of events in our lives like a diary. These memories are time stamped.

4. Working Memory Model - Baddeley

   • Episodic buffer ● Temporary storeholding visual, spacial and auditory information as it happens (records events) ● 4 chunks ● Links working memory to LTM
     • Central executive ● Monitors incoming data ● Allocates slave systems tasks ● Very limited capacity
       • Phonological loop ● Encodes acoustically □ Phonological store - stores words we heart □Articulatory process - 'loops' words to keep this in our working memory.
         • Visual-Spacial sketchpad ● Stores visual information ● Limited capacity of 3/4 objects □ Visual cache - store □ Inner scribe - records visual arrangements of objects

5. Forgetting

   • Interference Types: ● Proactive - old memories disrupt new ones ● Retroactive - new memories disrupt old ones
     • Postman - retroactive forgetting ● Two groups were given a list of paired words e.g. cat - tree, jelly - moss etc. ● Second groupgiven a separate list where the second word of the pair was different to the first list ● The control group were not given thesecond list ● Recall of the control group was better
   • Effects of similarity - Mcdonald ● Participants were given a list of words to learn until recall was 100% ● They were given a second list to remember in 6 groups: □ Synonyms □ Antonyms □ Unrelated □ Nonsense syllables □ 3 digit numbers □ none
     • Performance deepened on the second list. Most similar material (Synonyms) produced the worst results. Showing that interference was greater with similar memories.

6. Retrieval failure

   • Encoding specificity - Tulving Cues are most effective when present at encoding and retrieval
   • Context dependent - Gidden + Baddeley ● Deep sea divers learnt words on land and in the sea ● When learning in water and recalling on land, results were 40% worse than same condition learning/recall.
     • Tulving ● Gave a list of words in categories: animals, clothing and sports ● Those given the name of the categories did significantly better at recalling the list
   • State dependent forgetting - Carter + Cassady ● Anti-histamine created a drowsy internal psychological state ● Participants were given a list of words to recall either in a normal state or a drug induced state ● Mixed matched conditions did worse in recall

7. Eyewitness testimonies - misleading information

   • Leading questions - Loftus + Palmer ● Speed of a car in a crash video changed dependent on the verb used to describe the crash ● Verbs used: hit, bumped, collided, smashed, contacted ● Contacted: 31.8 mph speed ● Smashed: 40.5 mph speed
     • Loftus + Palmer pt2. ● Critical question 'how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?' ● 1 week later they were asked questions, one critical question asked 'did you see broken glad?' ● Participants asked using the verb 'smashed' were more likely to report seeing broken glass
       • Response bias - verb may have influenced answer but didn't change the memory Respresenation is altered - verb predicted seriousness which changed perception
   • Post-event discussion - Gabbert ●Showed participants a video of a crime from different perspectives, each saw something unique to the others ● After the video, participants were left to discuss ● Upon recall, 71% had said something that wasn't in their video (this was 0% in a control group)

8. Anxiety affecting acuraccy

   • Weapon focus effect - Johnson Two situations: ● Screaming > man walks out holding bloody paper knife ● Screaming > man walks out covered in grease holding a pen ● Pen - 49% recall ● Knife - 75% recall
   • Yuille + Cutshall ● Real life event of a gun shooting ● 21 witnesses, 13 took part ● After 4 months, interviews were compared to police reports to test recall Those with low levels of stress were 75% accurate Those with high levels of stress weer 88% accurate
   • Yerkes + Dodson law

9. Cognitive interviews

   • Stages: ● Report everything - even small details ● Reinstate context - picture the scene and recall how you felt to prevent context dependent forgetting ● Reverse order - recall from start to finish ● Change perspective - put yourself into another's shoes ● -Extended- use of body language and open ended Qs

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