1_Memory

1_Memory

1. Processes

   • Encoding refers to taking in information through our senses
     • Context
       • This theory shows that we forget information because there is a mismatch in cues at encoding and retrieval. There are two types of cue dependency: 1) Context dependent- This refers to cues that are external to us. 2) State dependent- This refers to cues that are internal to us
       • Forgetting
         • Amnesia
           • Retrograde-Loss of memory access to events that occurred or information that was learnt before an injury
           • Anterograde- Loss of ability to create new memories after the event while long term memories from before remain intact
   • Storage refers to where we keep the retrieved information
     • Retrieve refers to finding the encoded information that we have stored in the brain and are getting information from our memory system to use
       • Eyewitness Testimony
         • ( Loftus and Palmer )
           • ( Bruce and Young )
             • Aim- To examine the ability of participants to identify faces from video security devices
             • Method- Sixty participants were recruited for the study ( 20 students who had been taught by the people in the videos; 20 students from other departments: 20 police officers). They were tested individually in an experimental room where they watched 10 video clips of university staff entering buildings. They watched each clip twice after which they were shown high quality picture of peoples faces and had to rate each one. They were shown faces of people who had appeared but also faces of people who had not ( Seen and Unseen ).
               • Results- The results shown are that the familiar the face the higher the rating also the seen faces were more recognisable then the unfamiliar ones
               • Conclusion- Familiarity with the target on the video clip had a large effect on identification.
               • Evaluation
                 • As the study is well controlled, the can be confident that it was familiarity that affected the ratings given for each picture
                 • A small sample size could make it difficult to generalise neyond the sample used, as there were only 20 in each group. Also the rating system is subjective, so a rating of 5 according to one participant may not be a 5 according to another participant.
         • Aim- The researchers wanted to investigate whether language could effect memory of a car crash.
         • Method: Experiment 1- A total of 45 students participated in the study. They watched seven films depicting traffic accidents. They then had to try and recall what they had just seen. Th first group of nine participants were given the question : " About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?". The remainder of participants were split equally into four other groups and the word hit was replaced by smashed, collided, bumped or contacted
           • Experiment 2: This time, 150 students watched a film showing a multiple car accident. The participants were actually split into three groups. One group got the same question as those in experiment 1 "About how fast were the cars were going when they hit each other". The second group had hit replaced with smashed. The final group were not asked about the speed of the cars (a control group). One week later all the participants returned and were asked a critical question, which was " Did you see any broken glass?", with a simple yes/no response next to it.
             • Conclusion- Experiment 1: It would appear that the verbs used in the question may affect peoples perception of a car accident. Experiment 2: It would appear that the wording of questions again can cause participants to report things they never saw.
           • Evaluation- As the study is well controlled, Loftus and Palmer can be confident that it was the independant variable sin both studies that was affecting eyewitness recall also one of the studies had a large sample size, meaning that it is more likely to generalise to the target population.
           • However, both studies used students who may have a superior memory system to other types of people because they are at university and are used to remembering information. Also studies may lack ecological validity in two ways: In a laboratory and watching the event as a film, both of which are not like real life.

2. Multi Store Model

   • The sensory buffer picks up information from our senses, then this information is only taken further if we pay attention to it. If we pay attention to the information then it can enter our short term memory. This has a limited capacity- it is believed that it can hold seven plus or minus two items. These memories last for 15 to 30 seconds
     • Evaluation
       • There is some supporting evidence fr the limited capacity of short term memory ( Glanzer & Cunitz )
       • Case studies of brain damaged patients can lead support to there being seperate short term and long term memory stores
   • Once the amount of information goes above the maximum amount that can fit into our STM something happens- the item that was first into your STM will be the first one out ((FIFO, First In First Out)
     • If we rehearse / repeat the information then it could go unto 'Long Tern Memory'. Here it can be stored indefinitely and potentially lasts forever as capacity as capacity here is unlimited. Decay can happen , whereby information simply gets more and more faint, or brain damage , where the memories that were physically stored in the brain are literally removed or damaged.

3. Explanations of memory ( Multi store model )

   • Aim- Test out whether short term memory has a limited capacity
   • Method- A total of 46 army enlisted men took part in this experiment. They were shown words projected onto a screen every 3 second. The word list consisted of 15 words. Either: 1) The participant was allowed to recall as many words as possible. 2) The participant had to begin counting for 10 seconds and then was allowed to recall as many words as possible. 3) The participants had to begin counting for 30 seconds and then was allowed to recall as many words as possible
     • DV- How often the word is recalled
   • Conclusion It would appear that the results support the idea of short term memory having a limited capacity. The participants in the third group had undergone displacement via FIFO and all that was left in their short term memory was numbers, hence they could not recall any of the words from the end of the list
     • IV- What type of word was used
   • ( Cunitz & Glanzer )

4. Reconstructive Memory

   • ( Barlett Study )
   • Summary- When we retrieve stored information it is influenced by our mood and feelings at the time. The reason this could be happening is due to schemas. We can adapt these and also we can create them. (Schemas describe an organised pattern of thoughts or behaviours)
     • Results- After the story had been passed on through six people it had changed in many ways. It was much shorter. Also, the details that were left out were about native american culture. so the story sounded more like an English one.
   • Method- Barlett tested this out by getting participants to read a passage of information and then pass that information onto the next person, who passed it to the next person and so on. He used a native american story called 'war of the ghosts'
     • Conclusion- The reason why this could happen is due to Schemas, therefore when we are reconstructing we activate these schemas and make use of them.

5. Levels of processing

   • Aim- To test the levels of processing theory of memory proposed by Craik and Lockhart.
   • Craik and Lockhart (1974 ) stated that long term memories are a by product of the way in which we process information. They proposed three different levels of processing: Structural- This refers to processing things in relation to the way they look (EG: The structure of things). Phonemic/ Phonetic- This refers to processing things in relation to how they sound. Semantic- This refers to processing things in relation to what they mean.
     • EG: Structural- Is the following word in UPPER CASE? waffle. Phonemic- Does the following word ryme with water? daughter. Semantic- Does the following word fit into the sentence " ______ is a type of fruit"? Banjo
       • These are examples of the questions
   • Method-Craik and Tulving ran a series of 10 experiments ( Looking at Ex2 ). A series of questions were posed to the participants, 20 for each level of processing, with 10 yes answers and 10 no answers. After each question the participants looked into a tachistoscope, where a word was presented for 200 ms. They then responded with a yes or no. After this task the 24 participants were given a typed list of 180 words (60 they had seen were and 120 distractors). They had to choose which ones they recognised from the Tachistoscope. All words were five letter nouns.
     • Results: The chart shows that the percentage of recalled sentences and the participants found it harder to recall the questions involving cases
     • Conclusion- The findings do support levels of processing

6. Interference

   • Types of Interference
     • Pro active interference- This is when information that you have already processed interferes with new information you are trying to process, with the end result that you forget the new information.
     • Retro- active Interference- This is when new learning interferes with material that you have already previously processed and stored.
   • ( Loftus Study )
     • IV- What type of word was used EG: Smashed,Bumped or Collided
     • DV- Estimated Speed
     • ( Bruce and Young )
       • IV- Whether the face was familiar or not
       • DV- Which face was recalled

Bilder und Dateien der Mindmap