Psychology 104 CH #6: Learning

Psychology 104 CH #6: Learning

1. Conditioning

   • Involves learning connections between events that occur in an organism's environment.
   • Classical
     • A stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus (Pavlovian conditioning). Responses are said to be elicited because they are mostly automatic.
     • Conditioned stimulus/response
       • Conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. Conditioned response is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.
     • Unconditioned stimulus/response
       • Unconditioned stimulus evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. Unconditioned response is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning.
     • Conditioned fear/anxiety
       • Everyday fear responses as well as phobias can be products of classical conditioning. The presence of fear or phobias after a traumatic event depends on the individual.
     • Drug effects
       • Stimuli that are consistently paired with drugs can acquire the capacity to elicit conditioned responses. When drugs serve as an UCS the conditioned response is the opposite of the normal drug effects. Compensatory CRs compensate for some of the drug effects to help maintain homeostasis. Environmental cues can eventually elicit compensatory CRs that cancel out some of the drug effects. If drugs are taken in new settings the CCRs will not occur, and this can lead to overdose. When an individual tries to quit drugs in a familiar setting CCRs may increase drug cravings. Withdrawal symptoms may be present.
     • Acquisition
       • Refers to the initial stage of learning something. Stimulus contiguity is one of the factors that effect learning (stimuli are contiguous if they occur together in time and space). Only some pairing result in classical conditioning. Stimuli that are novel are more likely to become a CSs because they stand out.
     • Extinction
       • The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency. Achieved through the consistent presentation of the CS without the UCS. The conditioned bond may be difficult or easy to break.
     • Spontaneous recovery
       • The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the CS. The renewal effect states that if the response is extinguished in a different setting than it was acquired, the response will reappear if the subject is reintroduced to the previous environment.
     • Stimulus generalization
       • Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to a new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus. This is adaptive. The more similar the new stimuli are to the original CS the greater the generalization.
     • Stimulus discrimination
       • Occurs when an organism that ahs learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. Requires the original CS to be paired with the UCS while other stimuli are not. The less similar the new stimuli to the original, the greater the discrimination.
     • Higher order conditioning
       • A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. Shows that classical conditioning does not depend on the presence of a genuine UCS. New conditioned responses are built on the foundation of already established responses.
     • Conditioned taste aversion
       • A neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS which causes an UCR. This only works when the stimulus of taste is paired with the consequence of nausea.
     • Preparedness and phobias
       • Preparedness involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others. It is difficult to suppress these fears because they are adaptive, and they rely on the neural circuits in the amygdala.
     • Evaluative conditioning
       • Refers to changes in the linking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli. Evidence suggests that it can shape an individual's attitude.
     • Physiological responses
       • Research has shown that immune responses can be controlled by factors such as conditioning. Classical conditioning can lead to immunosuppression (decrease in the production of antibodies). Can also elicit allergic reactions.
   • Operant
     • A form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences. (instrumental learning) The ought to emit responses because they are mostly voluntary.
     • Thorndike's law of effect
       • If a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
     • Reinforcement
       • Occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response. Different subjects have different thought as to what is reinforcing.
     • Terminology and procedures
       • Operant chamber/Skinner box: small box where the animal can make a certain response and the flow of reinforcement is controlled and recorded. Reinforcement contingencies: Rules about which responses lead to the presentation of reinforcements. Cumulative recorder: creates a graphic record of the responses as a function of time. Primary reinforcement: events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. Secondary reinforcements: ecents that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.
     • Acquisition and shaping
       • Shaping consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of the desired response. Acquisition is the initial state of learning.
     • Extinction
       • Resistance to extinction occurs when the subject continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforce has been terminated. The renewal effect also applies.
     • Stimulus generalization and discrimination
       • Discriminative stimuli are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences of a reponse. Governed by generalization and discrimination.
     • Reinforcement and superstitious behavior
       • Thought to be due to irrational reasoning rather than to the unpredictable varagies of operant conditioning.
     • Schedules of reinforcement
       • A schedule of reinforcement determines which responses warrent a reinforcer. Continuous reinforcement involves the presentation of a reinforcer every time the response is performed. Intermittent reinforcement involves the presentation of a reinforcer only some of the time the response is performed. A fixed ration schedule involves the presentation of a reinforcement after a fixed number of non reinforced responses. A variable ratio schedule involves the presentation of a reinforcer when a variable number of responses have been completed. Fixed interval involves the presentation of a reinforcer for the first response only. Variable interval involves the presentation of a reinforcer for the first response after a variable amount of time has elapsed.
       • Positive reinforcement
         • Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by a pleasant reinforcer.
       • Negative reinforcement
         • Occurs when the response is followed with the removal of an aversive stimulus. Escape learning occurs when the animal acquires a response that ends the aversive stimulus. Avoidence learning occurs when the animal responds to prevent the aversive stimulus.
     • Punishment
       • Occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to male that response.
       • Side effects of physical punishment
         • Physical punishment is associated with poor parent child relatioships, elevated aggression, delinquency, behavioral, and mental health issues. Effects can carry over into adulthood.
     • Latent learning and Cognitive maps
       • Latent learning is learning that is not apparent from the behavior when it first occurs. This suggests that learning can take place without reinforcement. Organisms can create cognitive maps of different situations, and this suggests that cognition plays a role in conditioning.
     • Evolutionary and biological effects on learning
       • Reinforcement is not automatic when favorable outcomes follow a response. The response is likely to be strengthened is the person believes that it caused the outcome directly. Stimuli are viewed as signals that help animals avoid aversive situations, and maximize good outcomes.
     • Observational learning
       • Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of another. Four key processes: attention retention reproduction motivation Reinforcement affects which responses are performed, rather than which are acquired. Violent media is thought to cause young children and adolescents to take on violent responses. Signs of desensitization and adaptation are also shown. Mirror neurons are activated when performing an action, or seeing someone else perform that action.