Psych Chapter 5 Summary

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Definition of Learning

5.1 Define the term learning

Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice and is different from maturation, which is genetically controlled.

It Makes Your Mouth Water: Classical Conditioning

5.2 Identify the key elements of classical conditioning as demonstrated in Pavlov's classic experiment

Pavlov accidentally discovered the phenomenon in which one stimulus can, through pairing with another stimulus, come to produce a similar response. He called this "classical conditioning."

The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the stimulus that is naturally occurring and produces the innate, or involuntary, unconditioned response (UCR). Both are called unconditioned because they are not learned.

The conditioned stimulus or (CS) begins as a neutral stimulus, but when paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it eventually begins to illicit and involuntary, and automatic behavior on its own. The response to the conditioned stimulus is called the "conditioned response" (CR), and both stimulus and response are learned.

Pavlov paired a sound with the presentation of food to dogs and discovered several principles for classical conditioning: The neutral stimulus (NS) and the UCS must be paired several times, and the CS must precede the UCS by only a few seconds.

Other important aspects of classical conditioning include stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and high-order conditioning.

5.3 Apply classical conditioning to examples of phobias, taste aversions, and drug dependency

Watson was able to demonstrate than an emotional disorder called a phobia could be learned through classical conditioning by exposing y to a white rat and a loud noise, producing conditioned fear of the rat in the baby

Conditioned taste aversions occur when an organism becomes nauseated sometime after eating a certain food, which then becomes aversive to the organism.

Some kinds of conditioned responses are more easily learned than others because of the biological preparedness

Pavlov believed that the NS became a substitute for the UCS through association in time

The cognitive perspective asserts that the CS has o provide some kind of information or expectancy about the coming of the UCS in order for conditioning to occur

What's In It For Me? Operant Conditioning

5.4 Identify the contributions of Thorndike and Skinner to the concept of operant conditioning

Thorndike developed the law of effect: A response followed by a pleasurable consequence will be repeated, but a response followed by an unpleasant consequence will not be repeated

B. F. Skinner named the learning of voluntary responses "operant conditioning" because voluntary responses are what we u to operate the world around us

5.5 Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers and positive and negative reinforcement

Skinner developed the concept of reinforcement, the process of strengthing a response by following it with a pleasurable rewarding consequence

A primary reinforcer is something such as food or water that satisfies a basic, natural drive, whereas a secondary reinforcer is something that becomes reinforcing only after being paired with a primary reinforcer

In positive reinforcement, a response is followed by the presentation of a pleasurable stimulus, whereas in negative reinforcement, a response is followed by the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

Shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations to some final goal, allowing the behavior to be modeled from simple behavior already present in the organism.

Extinction, generalization and discrimination, and spontaneous recovery also occur in operant conditioning

5.6 Identify the four schedules of reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement occurs when each and every correct response is followed by a reinforcer

Partial reinforcement, in which only some correct responses are followed by reinforcement, is much more resistant to extinction. This is called partial reinforcement.

In a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement, at least one correct response must be made within a set interval of time to obtain reinforcement.

In a variable interval schedule of reinforcement, reinforcement follows the first correct response made after an interval of time that changes for each reinforcement opportunity.

In a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement, a certain number of responses are required before reinforcement is given.

In a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement, a varying number of responses is required before reinforcement is given.

5.7 Identify the effect that punishment has on behavior

Punishment in any event or stimulus that, when following a response makes that response less likely to happen again

In punishment by application, a response is followed by the application or experience of an unpleasant stimulus, such as a spanking

In punishment by removal, a response is followed by the removal of some pleasurable stimulus, such as taking away a toy

A person who uses aggressive punishment, such as spanking can act as a model for aggressive behavior. This will increase aggressive behavior in the one being punished, which is an undesirable response.

Punishment of both kinds normally has only a temporary effect on behavior

Punishment can be made more effective by making it immediate and consistent and by pairing punishment of an undesirable behavior with reinforcement of a desirable one.

5.8 Explain the concepts of discriminant stimuli, extinction, generalization, and spontaneous recovery as they relate to operant conditioning

Discriminative stimuli are cues, such as a flashing light on a police car or a sign on a door that says "Open," which provide information about what response to make in order to obtain reinforcement

Shaping, extinction, generalization and discrimination, and spontaneous recovery are other concepts in operant conditioning.

Instinctive drift is the tendency for an animal that is being trained by operant conditioning to revert to instinctive patterns of behavior rather than maintain the trained behavior.

5.9 Describe how operant conditioning is used to change animal and human behavior.

Operant conditioning can be used in many settings on both animals and people to change, or modify behavior. This use is termed behavior modification and includes the use of reinforcement and shaping to alter behavior.

Token economies are a type of behavior modification in which secondary reinforcers, or tokens, are used.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the modern version of behavior modification and makes the use of functional analysis and behavioral techniques to change human behavior.

Neurofeedback is a modified version of biofeedback in which a person learns to modify the activity of his or her brain

Cognitive Learning Theory

5.10 Explain the concept of latent learning

Cognitive learning theory states that learning requires cognition or the influence of an organism's thought processes.

Tolman found that rats that were allowed to wander in a maze but were not reinforced still showed evidence of having learned the maze once reinforcement became possible. He termed this hidden learning latent learning, a form of cognitive learning.

5.11 Explain how Köhler's studies demonstrated that animals can learn by insight.

Köhler found evidence of insight, the sudden perception of the relationships among the elements of a problem, in chimps.

5.12 Summarize Seligman's studies on learned helplessness

Seligman found that dogs that had been placed in an inescapable situation failed to try to escape when it became possible to do so, remaining in the painful situation as if helpless to leave.

Seligman called this phenomenon "learned helplessness" and found parallels between learned helplessness and depression.

Observational Learning

5.13 Describe the process of observational learning

Observational learning is acquired by watching others perform or model, certain actions

Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that young children will imitate the aggressive actions of a model even when there is no reinforcement for doing so.

5.14 List the four elements of observational learning

Bandura determined that four elements needed to be present for observational learning to occur: attention, memory, imitation, and desire.

Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Can You Really Toilet Train Your Cat

5.15 Describe an example of conditioning in the real world.

Writer Karawynn Long used shaping, reinforcement, and classical conditioning to train her cat to use the toilet in her bathroom instead of a littler box