Psych Chapter 13 Summary

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Theories of Personality

Personality is the unique way individuals think, feel, and act. It is different from character and temperament but includes those aspects

4 traditional perspectives in the study of personality are the psychodynamic, behavioristic (including social cognitive theory), humanistic, and trait perspectives

Psychodynamic Perspectives

13.1 Explain how the mind and personality are structured, according to Freud

The 3 divisions of the mind are the conscious, preconscious and unconscious. The unconscious can be revealed in dreams.

The 3 parts of the personality are the id, ego, and superego.

The id works on the pleasure principle and the ego works on the reality principle

The superego is the moral center personality, containing the conscience, and the source of moral anxiety

The conflicts between the demands of the id and the rules and restrictions of the superego lead to anxiety for the ego, which uses defense mechanisms to deal with that anxiety,

13.2 Distinguish among the 5 psychosexual stages of personality development

The personality develops in a series of psychosexual stages: oral (id dominates), anal (ego develops), phallic (superego develops), latency (period of sexual repression), and genital (sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate targets).

The Oedipus and Electra complexes (sexual "crushes" on the opposite site sex parent) create anxiety in the phallic stage, which is resolved through identification with the same-sex parent

Fixation occurs when conflicts are not fully resolved during a stage, resulting in adult personality characteristics reflecting childhood inadequacies.

13.3 Describe how the neo-Freudians modified Freud's theory

Changed the focus of psychoanalysis to fit their own interpretation of the personality, leading to the more modern version known as the psychodynamic perspective

Jung developed a theory of a collective unconscious

Adler proposed feelings of inferiority as the driving force behind personality and developed birth order theory

Horney developed a theory based on anxiety and rejected the concept of penis envy

Erikson developed a theory based on social rather than sexual relationships, covering the entire life span

13.4 Evaluate the influence of Freudian theory on modern personality theories

Current research has found support for the defense mechanisms and the concept of an unconscious mind that can influence conscious behavior, but other concepts cannot be scientifically researched.

The Behavioral and Social Cognitive View of Personality

13.5 Compare and contrast the learning theories of Bandura and Rotter

Behaviorists define personality as a set of learned response or habits

The social cognitive view of personality includes the concept of reciprocal determinism, in which the environment, characteristics of the person, and the behavior itself all interact.

Self-efficacy is a characteristic in which a person perceives a behavior as more or less effective based on previous experience, the opinions of others and perceived personal competencies

Locus of control is a determinant of personality in which one either assumes that one's action directly affects events and reinforcements one experiences or that such events and reinforcements are the results of luck, fate, or powerful others.

Personality, in the form of potential behavior patterns, is also determined by an interaction between one's expectancies for success and the perceived value of the potential reinforcement.

13.6 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the behavioral and social cognitive leaning views of personality

Traditional behavioral personality theory has scientific support but has been criticized for being too simplistic

The social cognitive theory of Bandura and social learning theory of Rotter account for the influences of individual cognitive processes and social influences on personality.

The 3rd Force: Humanism and Personality

13.7 Describe how humanists such as Carl Rogers explain personality

Humanism developed as a reaction against the negativity of psychoanalysis and the deterministic nature of the behavior

Carl Rogers proposed that self-actualization depends on the proper development of the self-concept

The self-concept includes the real self and the ideal self. When these two components do not match or agree, anxiety and disordered behavior result.

Unconditioned positive regard from important others in a person's life helps the formation of the self-concept and the congruity of the real and ideal selves, leading to a fully functioning person.

13.8 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the humanistic view of personality

Some aspects of the humanistic theory are not easy to evaluate through research

Despite noted challenges, the humanistic theory approached has been effective in therapy situations. The theory has also led to therapies promoting self-growth and increased understanding of self and others.

Trait Theories: Who Are You?

13.9 Describe early attempts to use traits to conceptualize personality

Trait theorists describe personality traits in order to predict behavior

Allport first developed a list of about 200 traits and believed these traits were part of the nervous

Cattell reduced the number of traits to between 16 and 23 with a computer method called factor analysis

13.10 Identify the 5 trait dimensions of the five-factor model of personality

Several researchers have arrived at 5 trait dimensions that have research support across cultures, called the Big Five or five-factor model.

The five factors are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Traits may be used to predict a variety of life outcomes, including occupations, success in school and work, physical healrth and mental health.

Specific traits appear to be related to different aspects of cognition and intelligence.

13.11 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the trait view of personality.

Some researchers believe the expression of some traits will differ based on situation and context.

Factors continue to be researched. For example, some five-factor researchers use the label openness/intellect to recognize potentially different aspects of cognition and intelligence.

Personality: Genetics and Culture

13.12 Explain how twin studies and adoption studies are used in the field of behavioral genetics

Behavioral genetics is a field of study of the relationship between heredity and personality

Studies with both identical and fraternal twins, those either raised together or raised apart, assist researchers in investigating the role of genetics and environment on the development of personality.

Adoption studies of twins or nontwin siblings also provide valuation information.

13.13 Summarize current research on the heritability of personality

Studies of twins and adopted children have found support for a genetic influence on many personality traits, including intelligence, leadership abilities, traditionalism, nurturance, empathy, assertiveness, neuroticism, and extraversion.

Cross-cultural research has found support for the five-factor model of personality traits in a number of different cultures.

Future research will explore the degree to which child-rearing practices and heredity may influence the five personality factors.

Assessment of Personality

13.14 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews, behavioral assessments, and personality inventories to measure personality.

Interviews are used primarily by psychoanalysts and humanists and can include structured or unstructured interviews Disadvantages of interviews can include the halo effect and bias of the interpretation on the part of the interviewer.

Behavioral assessments are primarily used by behaviorists and include direct observation of behavior, rating scales of specific behavior and frequency counts of behavior. Behavioral assessments have the disadvantage of the observer effect, which causes an observed person's behavior change, and observer bias on the part of the person doing the assessment.

Personality inventories are typically developed by trait theorists and provide a detailed description of certain personality traits. The NEO-PI-3 is based on the five-factor model, whereas the MMPI-2-RF is designed to detect abnormal personality.

Personality inventories include validity scales to prevent the minimization or exaggeration of symptoms, or "faking bad", but such measures are not perfect.

13.15 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using projective personality tests.

Projective tests are based on the defense mechanism of projection and are used by psychoanalysts. Projective tests include the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test.

Projective tests can be useful in finding starting points to open a dialogue between therapist and client have been criticized for being low in reliability and validity.

Applying Psych to Everyday Life: Biological Bases of Personality

3.16 Identify some biological bases of personality

Personality neuroscience is a growing area of research and brain structure differences associated with some aspect of the Big Five dimensions of personality have been identified using structural MRI.