Memory

Multi-Store Model of Memory

• Sensory Register:
• A store for each of the five senses, the two mains being the iconic store (visually coded) and the echoic store (acoustically coded). The duration is less than half a second, but the capacity is high (millions of cells in the eyes). If you pay attention to something, it moves into the STM
• The STM has a limited capacity (7+-2 items). The information is coded acoustically, and lasts around 30 seconds, unless maintenance rehearsal takes place, which is when we repeat information to ourselves over and over again. If we do this, information moves along to the LTM
• The information here is coded semantically, and it may have an unlimited capacity and duration. However, information is not recalled directly from here, rather it is transferred to the STM
• Evaluation Points:
• Baddeley found we mix up similar sounding words when using our STM, but words with similar meanings are confused in the LTM. This shows the separate nature of stores, as well as showing differences in CCD.
• Craik and Watkins say that the amount of rehearsal is not important, but rather the type. They say elaborative rehearsal is better (linking info to existing knowledge)
• Research to support is somewhat artificial (consonant syllables)

Coding, Capacity and Duration of Memory

• Coding is the format in which information is stored in the various memory stores. Baddeley conducted a study in which he used word that were acoustically/semantically similar/unsimilar (4 groups). Use previous evaluation points for reference.
• Capacity is the amount of information that can be held in a memory store. Jacobs digit span had a mean of 7.3 for letter. Miller said that things often come in 7s, hence the mean. However, chunking allows for better memory.
• Duration is the length of time that information can be held in memory. Students took part in 8 trials, in which they were given a consonant syllable and a 3 digit number, which they were told to continously count backwards from (prevents maintenance rehearsal). At different times they were told to stop counting and recall the CS, and the studies showed that longer time correlates to lower levels of recollection.
• Coding Evaluations:
• Baddeley's study is artificial
• Capacity Evaluations:
• Jacobs study was old and not controlled, so confounding variables come into play
• Duration Evaluations:
• Artificial study - low in external validity

Long Term Memory

• Episodic Memory - A long term memory store for personal events. It includes memories of when events occured and of the people, objects, places and behaviours involved. Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort.
• Semantic Memory - An LTM for our knowledge of the world, including our knowledge of facts, as well as an understanding of words and concepts. They must be recalled deliberately
• Procedural Memory - an LTM for our knowledge of how to do things. This includes memories of learned skills, and they are normally recalled without any conscious effort.
• Evaluation Points:
• Clive Wearing - Episodic Memory impacted, but not semantic memory (didn't know they had a dog, knew what a dog was). Supports the idea that the LTM is built up of different stores.
• PET scans show semantic memories recalled from left side of the prefrontal cortex, whereas episodic memory is recalled from the right prefrontal cortex. Higher validity
• Lack of control in studies such as Clive Wearing and HM

Working Memory Model

• A representation of STM, which suggests that it is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub units coordinated by a central decision making system.
• Central Executive - monitors incoming data and makes decisions as to which slave system should be used (small capacity)
• Phonological Loop - Preserves auditory information in order it came in .
• Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad - Stores visual/spatial information when required (helps with visualisation). It has a limited capacity, around 3/4
• Episodic Buffer - brings all the other materials into one to form a single memory and provides a bridge between the WM and the LTM
• Evaluation Points:
• KF - couldn't recall sounds, but could recall letters and numbers, so his phonological loop had been damaged, but not other parts - may be unreliable as it s taken from u unique case
• Not understood - Baddeley claims that the CE is the most important, but also the least understood, and it is too simple.
• CE in left prefrontal cortex, and a study showed that increasing task difficulty led to increased activity in this area

Interference

• Interference is when one memory results in forgetting, as it blocks another, or distorts both memories (used for the LTM mostly).
• Proactive interference - older memories disrupt the remembrance of newer memories (forgetting is greater when memories are similar).
• Retroactive interference - newer memories disrupt the remembrance of older memories (forgetting is greater when memories are similar).
• Evaluation Points:
• Thousands of experiments as support = higher validity
• Artificial material
• Rugby players experiment - number of games played in between matches had larger effect on recall
• Time spent learning

Retrieval Failure

• RF is a form of forgetting in which we dont have the necessary cues to access memories (available but not accessible).
• A cue is a trigger of information that allows us to access a memory (may be meaningful or indirectly linked).
• Cues must be present at the time of encoding and retrieval, and the absence of either of these things at both points is likely to result in forgetting.
• Evaluation Points:
• Michael Eysenck says RF is the most likely reason for forgetting info stored in the LTM - higher validity
• Badeley questions how context impacts cues, as some places are easily separated, whereas others are more similar (land and water experiment) - less validity
• No way to establish if the cue is entirely responsible for remembering

Misleading Information

• Eye witness testimony - the ability of people to remember the details of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed. Accuracy can be impacted by leading questions, misleading information and anxiety.
• Misleading information - Incorrect information given to the eyewtiness in the form of a leading question, post event discussion etc
• Leading question - a question that implies a certain answer due to phrasing
• Evaluation Points:
• Loftus and Palmer study with car accident, leading questions "bumped" "smashed" etc higher speeds and more extreme description for more aggressive terms
• The above is possibly flawed as it may draw out emotional responses, however it is also highly controlled
• Gabbert et al gave Ps a video from different angles and then placed them in pairs to discuss, they then completed a test individually, where around 70% of Ps were incorredt cue to PED (memory conformity)
• Real life application

Anxiety

• Anxiety is a state of emotional and physical arousal. Emotions include having thoughts of tension and worry, with physical effects being sweatiness and increased heart rate.
• Johnson and Scott carried out an experiment to test how anxiety impacts EWT. Ps were made to think they were about to take part in an experiment, but whilst waiting outside they heard a fake argument. There were two conditions:
• Low anxiety condition - man walks past Ps with pen and grease
• High anxiety condition - man walks past Ps with bloodied paper and knife
• Recall was lower in the high anxiety group, due to the theory of tunnel vision.
• Evaluation Points:
• J and S study may have had more to do with surprise, study with rubber chicken had lowest recall, meaning it may have more to do with unusual circumstances
• Extraneous variables come into play due to things the Ps witness in the interval between the observation and questions - this impacts validity and makes it harder to assess anxiety effects
• Possibly unethical to make Ps suffer anxiety

Cognitive Interview

• Cognitive interviews are a way of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. It uses psycholoigcal knowledge of the human memory to improvre accuracy.
• Report everything, no matter how trivial as they may serve as cues
• Reinstate the context - imagine you are there
• Reverse the order - helps cut out lies and expectations
• Change perspective - disrupts schemas and changes thinking
• Evaluation Points:
• Requires special training and a rapport must be built with clients - time consuming
• Kohnken 50 cases study shows CI is more accurate - real beneifts in serious situations
• Although Kohnken found an increase in correct information, he also found an increase in incorrect informtation - makes us question validity