Vitamins

Vitamins

1. Generalities of vitamins

   • can
     • Act as cofactors
     • Form prosthetic groups of enzymes
   • participate in the metabolism of
     • Carbohydrates
     • Fats
     • Protein
   • are important for
     • Cell growth, proliferation and differentiation
     • The immune system
   • can be classified in
     • Fat-soluble vitamins
     • Water-soluble vitamins
   • concentrations of vitamins in plasma
     • Are inappropriate in the case of water-soluble vitamins
     • Are related to recent ingestion and do not reflect the overall body state

2. Fat-soluble vitamins

   • are
     • Associated with body fat
     • Often stored in tissues so that circulating concentrations remain relatively constant
   • these vitamins are
     • Vitamin A
       • is a
         • Generic term to designate three compounds retinol, retinal and retinoic acid
           • the
             • Retinol and retinoic acid are activated forms of this vitamin
       • plays a role in
         • Healthy vision, bone and tissue growth and reproduction
         • Immune system
           • the vitamin A
             • Regulates number and function of NK cells,
             • Contributes to phagocytic and oxidative burst activity of macrophages
             • Helps to regulate the production of IL-2 and the proinflammatory TNF-α
             • Downregulates IFN production
             • Development and differentiation of Th1 and Th2 cells
       • the
         • Provitamin of vitamin A is β -carotene
         • Retinoic acid is a signaling molecule that interacts with ligand-activated transcription factors
       • is
         • Stored in the liver as retinol and retinol esters
         • Part of the visual pigment rhodopsin present in the rods of the retina, responsible for vision in low light
       • deficiency
         • Manifests as defective night vision or night blindness
           • because
             • Produces a defective epithelialization and keratomalacia with corneal whitening and opacity
       • excess
         • It may increase the risk of birth defects, liver abnormalities and reduced bone mineral density
     • Vitamin D
       • is
         • A hormone that is a group of closely related sterols produced by the action of ultraviolet light
           • it helps the body
             • To absorb calcium
       • the
         • products of the photolytic reaction
           • are
             • Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2)
             • Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3)
       • influences
         • Genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and modulates growth
       • participates in
         • Immune function and anti-inflammatory
           • because
             • Increases differentiation of monocytes to macrophages
             • Reduces the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines
             • Increases the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines by macrophages
       • deficiency
         • Causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults
         • Is characterized by low circulating contractions of calcium and increased activity of serum alkaline phosphatase
       • excess
         • Causes hypercalcemia and metastatic calcium deposition
     • Vitamin E
       • is involved in
         • Immune function
           • because
             • Enhances lymphocyte proliferation and T-cell-mediated functions
         • Cell signaling and gene expression
       • is a
         • Membrane antioxidant that protects lipids from oxidation by reactive oxygen species
         • Mixture of several compounds called tocopherols
       • deficiency
         • Caused by the fat malabsorption and abetalipoproteinemia
         • In premature infants produce hemolytic anemia, thrombocytosis, peripheral neuropathy, myopathy and ataxia.
     • Vitamin K
       • is
         • Necessary for post-translational modification of coagulation factors
           • these factors are
             • Activated by carboxylation of specific glutamic acid residues by a vitamin K-dependent enzyme
         • Also produced by the intestinal microflora
       • it is divided in two
         • Circulates as phylloquinone (vitamin k1)
           • is
             • Predominantly found in green vegetables
         • Its liver stores are in the form of menaquinones (vitamin k2)
           • can be divided in
             • Short-chain (menaquinone-4; MK-4)
             • Long-chain (MK-7, MK-8 and MK-9)
           • effects are
             • Improving health in cardiovascular disease, bone metabolism, chronic kidney disease and cancer
           • are
             • Synthesized by bacteria
             • Found in food where bacteria are part of the production process
         • Both revent oxidative stress in neuronal cells and primary oligodendrocytes through inhibition of 12-Lipoxygenase
       • deficiency
         • Associated with bleeding disorders can develop in people with liver disease or fat malabsorption
         • Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn.

3. Water-soluble vitamins

   • Vitamins of the B complex
     • The biotin
       • or
         • Vitamin H, B7, B8
       • is important in
         • Carboxylation reactions
         • Lipogenesis
         • Gluconeogenesis
         • Catabolism of branched-chain amino acids
       • symptoms of deficiency
         • Hallucinations
         • Muscle pain
         • Depression
         • Dermatitis
     • Vitamin B6
       • or
         • Pyridoxine
       • helps the body to
         • Use protein, form red blood cells and maintain brain function.
       • has a function in the
         • Synthesis of neurotransmitters
           • like
             • Dopamine from L‐DOPA
             • Serotonin from 5‐HTP
             • Gamma‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) from glutamate
         • Synthesis of the heme group and influences immune function
       • is
         • A mixture of pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and their 5'-phosphate esters
       • deficiency
         • Causes neurological symptoms and anemia
       • high doses
         • Treatment for carpal tunnel syndrome and premenstrual syndromese
         • During pregnancy to ensure fetal brain development
       • the status is based on the
         • Measurement of erythrocyte aspartate aminotransferase
     • Vitamin B1
       • or
         • Thiamine
       • It is directly involved in
         • Nerve stimulation in a non‐coenzymatic way due to its interference with the structure and function of cellular membranes and its ability to regulate ion channels
       • is essential for
         • Carboxylation reactions
         • Glucose metabolism
         • Maintenance of nerve membrane function, the synthesis of myelin and several types of neurotransmitters
       • participates in the
         • Oxidative decarboxylation of α-ketoglutarate
         • Metabolism of branched chain amino acids
       • deficiency
         • Originates beriberi without fluid retention or with heart failure and edema.
         • The thalamus and the mamillary bodies suffer damage.
         • In Wernicke's encephalopathy, thiamine deficiency is thought to trigger apoptotic cell death due to N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate toxicity and thereby induce neurological symptoms
       • tests to determine the status
         • Measurement of citric transketolase activity
     • Vitamin B3
       • or
         • Niacin
           • is the
             • Generic name for nicotinic acid or nicotinamide
       • deficiency
         • Causes dermatitis, diarrhea and dementia, also can progress to pellagra
       • is
         • Required for the synthesis of NAD + and NADP +
         • Active as part of the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD +) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP +)
         • Synthesized from tryptophan
       • high doses
         • Can cause hepatotoxicity
     • Vitamin B2
       • or
         • Riboflavin
       • is found in the oxidoreductases in the form of
         • Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
         • Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
       • is necessary for
         • The energy metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids.
       • the
         • Hypothyroidism affects the conversion of riboflavin to FMN and FAD
         • Erythrocyte glutathione reductase activity determinations are used to determine riboflavin status
     • Vitamin B5
       • or
         • Pantothenic acid
       • is
         • Part of the coenzyme A (CoA) molecule
         • Widely distributed in animals and plants
     • Vitamin B12
       • or
         • Cobalamin
       • participates in the
         • Production of erythrocytes
         • Synthesis of nucleic acids
         • Recycling of folates
       • function in
         • DNA synthesis of myelin‐producing oligodendrocytes
         • Synthesis of myelin
         • Cofactor for methionine synthetase, which converts homocysteine to methionine
           • conversion of
             • Methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA catalyzed by L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase
       • it is important to know that the
         • Vitamin B12 produced by bacteria in the colon of humans is not available for uptake
         • Cobalamin is only found in animal products such as fish, dairy products, meats and in fleshy organs such as the liver and kidney.
       • deficiency
         • The strict vegetarians
         • Causes pernicious anemia, an autoimmune condition secondary to gastric atrophy and lack of intrinsic factor
         • Megaloblastic anemia due to a secondary folate deficiency
     • Vitamin B9
       • or
         • Folic acid
       • has several derivatives that are
         • Collectively known as folates
           • the main circulating form is
             • Monoglutamate N5-THF
       • deficency
         • Megaloblastic anemia
         • Hyperhomocysteinemia.
         • is caused
           • by
             • Inadequate intake
             • Impaired absorption
             • Metabolic disturbances and increased demand
       • is important in
         • Red blood cell formation
         • Healthy cell growth and function
         • Developing fetus during pregnancy
         • Single-carbon transfer reactions, necessary for DNA synthesis
           • such as
             • Methylation reactions
             • Choline, serine, glycine and methionine synthesis pathways
       • is
         • Present in the liver, yeasts and vegetables with green leaves (spinach) and fruits, including citrus
     • Generalities
       • Act as coenzymes in numerous reactions of metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
       • The mammals are not able to synthesize vitamins B on their own
       • The supplementation with the combination of vitamins B1, B6, and B12 interact synergistically to improve neuropathy, motor control, nociceptive and neuropathic pain
   • Vitamin C
     • its active form is
       • Ascorbic acid
     • participates in
       • Keeping the metallic cofactors in their lowest valence state
       • The regeneration of another antioxidant vitamin, α-tocopherol
       • The degradation of tyrosine
       • The formation of bile acids
     • synthesis of
       • Collagen
       • L-carnitine
       • Adrenaline
       • Steroids
       • Neurotransmitters
     • has a role in
       • Proliferation, function and movement of neutrophils, monocytes and phagocytes
       • IFN γ production
       • Maintaining NK cell activities
       • Chemotaxis
     • deficiency
       • Causes scurvy
       • Compromises immune function
       • Causes defects in collagen synthesis
   • generalities
     • Except for vitamin B12, the body has no storage capacity for these vitamins
     • Any excess of these vitamins is excreted in the urine

4. Vitamin supplements

   • provides a
     • Clear benefit for health
       • like
         • Folic acid supplements in pregnant women
         • Vitamin D to people who live in areas with little sunlight
         • Folic acid, vitamins B6 and B12 reduce the concentration of homocysteine in plasma
           • is
             • Beneficial in the prevention of cardiovascular disease
   • at high doses
     • Can be harmful
       • because can provoke the
         • Reduction of bone mineral density
         • Hepatotoxicity
         • Teratogenicity
   • beneficial to follow diets
     • Rich in vegetables and fruits
       • because
         • They are the most important sources of vitamins

5. ·

   • Took from Baynes, J., & Dominiczak, M. (2015). Bioquímica médica. En J. Baynes, & M. Dominiczak, Bioquímica médica (págs. 136). Barcelona: Elsevier Saunders.

6. ·

   • Took from Mayo Clinic. (July de 2009). Mayo Clinic Women´s Healthsource. Obtenido de Mayo Clinic Women´s Healthsource: https://www.mayoclinic.org/documents/mc5129-0709-sp-rpt-pdf/doc-20079085

7. Made by: David Leonardo López Sánchez

Images and files in the map