Anatomy Midterm Exam Sem 2

Lymphatic and Immune System

• Structure of the Lymphatic System: Central, Peripheral and Accessory organs and tissues.
• Central Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
• Bone Marrow: Bone marrow lies deep within the long bones. Red bone marrow produces and repairs red blood cells and stem cells. Stem cells produce cells (call hematopoiesis) that are responsible for immunity.
• Thymus: The thymus gland is located in the mediastinum between the lungs. The thymus of a fetus and infant has two lobes of lymphoid tissue. The thymus is the first site of lymphocyte production in a developing fetus. Immature lymphocytes from the bone marrow move to the thymus for circulation to the spleen, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid tissues. From fetal development through to the onset of puberty, the thymus helps form a type of cell called T-lymphocytes and continues to grow.. Afterwards, it shrinks.
• Peripheral Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
• Lymphatic Vessels: Body tissues are bathed by a clear fluid called lymphatic fluid. It is similar in composition to interstitial fluid. Lymphatic fluid transports red blood cells to and from the lymph nodes through lymphatic vessels. The lymphatic fluid circulates through a network of vessels that originate at lymphatic capillaries. These small capillaries are made up of one layer of flat endothelial cells. The lymphatic system develops from these capillaries to larger vessels and then lymphatic ducts. The lymphatic vessels run parallel to the venous system.
• Spleen: The spleen is located directly below the diaphragm in the left upper quadrant. The spleen is enclosed in a capsule and it has many sinuses. It is dark red, oval, and approximately the size of your fist. The spleen plays a role in filtration of blood, repairing tissues, hematopoiesis, storage of blood, and the destruction of red blood cells and platelets. The spleen contains white and red pulp. The white pulp contains clusters of lymphocytes and red pulp contains sinuses, reticular fibers, phagocytes, some lymphocytes, plasma cells, and monocytes.
• Accessory Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
• Removes foreign particles similarly to lymph nodes. They are present in places where bacteria and other microbes are prone such as the nasopharynx (tonsils and adenoids) and in the intestine (appendix and Peyer’s patches)
• Small Review
• 1. The liver is to the circulatory system as the _________________ is to the ___________.
• Lymph Nodes, Lymphatic System; The lymph nodes function as a filter for the lymphatic system the same way that the liver is responsible for filtering red blood cells from the circulatory system.The lymph nodes function as a filter for the lymphatic system the same way that the liver is responsible for filtering red blood cells from the circulatory system.
• 2. If a medical practitioner said that an illness was pyrogenic, what do you think it would mean?
• That it causes a fever; Pyrogenic cellular mediators are released in response to inflammation and cause a fever.
• 3. Your friend has been sick off and on for a few weeks. They tell you that they have been to the doctor and that when the doctor palpated their axillary lymph nodes they experienced a great deal of pain. Your friend was referring to what area of their body?
• Arm pits; The axillary lymph nodes are located in the underarms.
• 4. Innate immunity is _________ specific than ___________ immunity.
• Less, Adaptive; Adaptive immunity learns to recognize specific pathogens over time only through exposure. Innate immunity is limited to that which is passed on from the mother.
• 5. Your friend tells you that they are refusing the varicella (chicken pox) vaccine. They say that vaccinations are dangerous and cause a very high risk of becoming infected with a virus because they inject LIVE viruses and bacteria into your body. You know that your friend is:
• Wrong because they say there is a high risk of becoming infected with a virus; In reality, when a person receives a live vaccine, they are being injected with a virus or becoming infected with it. This is how the adaptive immunity can develop in a controlled way.

Lymph Nodes

• Lymph nodes, also called lymph glands, are bean or oval shaped nodes and range from 1-20mm in size. Each of these nodes, are networks of sinuses and tissue. The majority of lymph nodes (except the preaortic lymph node) cluster in groups.
• Lymph nodes perform two important functions: filtration and hematopoiesis. Their structure allows for the lymph to be filtered of any unwanted particles. They undergo the process of phagocytosis to destroy the foreign particles. When phagocytosis goes wrong the lymph node is affected and when it tries to filter bacteria , it becomes infected. These small glands the final site of maturation of some blood cells. Some monocytes and lymphocytes that are released from the bone marrow move to adjacent lymph nodes to undergo the final phase of hematopoiesis.
• Preauricular: Anterior/ above the ears
• Fluid Drainage: Tissue and skin on the side of head and face
• Submental: Floor of the mouth
• Fluid Drainage: Nose, lip, and teeth lymph
• Superficial Cervical: Along the sternocleidomastoid muscle in the neck
• Fluid Drainage: Lymph that has already passed through the other nodes of the head and neck
• Superficial Cubital: Distal end of the biceps muscle
• Fluid Drainage: Lymph from the forearm
• Axillary: Deep within the underarm (axilla)
• Fluid Drainage: Arm, upper part of the chest wall, and breast
• Iliac and Inguinal: Pelvis and groin
• Fluid Drainage: Pelvic organs, legs, genitals

Lymphatic and Immune System

• Types of Immunity:
• Innate Immunity: Innate immunity includes barriers, such as skin, mucous, nasal hair, and other cells of the immune system a person is born with. They are proactive rather than reactive; prevent pathogens from entering the blood and lymph circulation at all. The skin, the mouth and its surfaces, respiratory, and gastrointestinal tracts all have protective to keep the body free of pathogens.
• Skin: A physical barrier, using the epidermal surface and keratin to keep pathogens away from the blood and tissue layers of the body.
• Trachea: The respiratory tract has epithelial cells that have small projections called cilia that work to sweep away bacteria, which is how the phlegm that may collect in the lungs is moved up when a person coughs, to clear the lungs of the invaders.
• Stomach: an acidic environment is maintained to destroy any bacteria that may enter on food particles or from unwashed hands, putting them in contact with your mouth, eyes or nose.
• Phagocytes of the innate system are macrophages and neutrophils.
• Macrophages: Irregular shape and are very versatile. They move through capillary walls with ease. Their adaptability and their ability to roam around the body freely make them an important part of innate immunity but also adaptive immunity. These cells are the first line of defense against any invaders that make it past the body’s various barriers. They have different names for different locations in the body.
• Neutrophils: They are shaped like spheres and they contain mediators that alter the size of the blood vessels. In this case, the mediators like histamines, which are carried on the neutrophils, work to dilate the blood vessels to allow blood to flow to the area faster. They are called in response to a chemical reaction such as the release of inflammatory by-products or pathogens, from the blood to the tissues that are infected or injured.
• Natural Killer Cells: a lymphocyte that causes the cell to bring about its own death by either responding to a chemical signal or by releasing its own destructive proteins and enzymes, essentially eating itself.
• Adaptive Immunity: Adaptive immunity works to destroy the pathogens that your innate immunity cannot handle. Before they can do this, they need to be able to recognize the pathogen as a foreign invader. Just like you don’t know someone until you are introduced to them, adaptive immunity requires introductions to get to know its pathogens. Adaptive immunity is built up through interactions with the environment or immunization (Vaccines).
• Humoral Immunity: Humoral immunity works by releasing antibodies found in extracellular fluids. Antibodies are proteins that are made by the leukocytes (white blood cells) that circulate through the body’s blood and lymph. These antibodies patrol the fluid that runs through these systems to destroy the pathogens that are present between the cells and the interstitial spaces.

Immunity Cells

• T-cells
• T-cells are produced by the thymus gland in response to a pathogen or antigen in the humoral system. Each T-cell becomes programmed to identify a different type of antigen or pathogen. If the immune system does not have the correct T-cell already established, it will activate the B-cells to help them recognize the pathogen and destroy it through the production of an antibody.
• B-cells
• B-cells are lymphocytes that are produced in the bone marrow. They not only produce one type of antibody, but they have the ability to produce antibodies that are required to destroy specific diseases. The B-cell has the ability to produce a key that fits into the antigen perfectly.

Quiz Review Immune System

• 1. Which immune response component is tailored for each different type of antigen or pathogen?
• T- cell
• 2. What is the function of the thymus?
• Producing T-cells
• 3. What is the pus that leaks from an older injury partly made of?
• Dead phagocytes
• 4. The spleen filters blood, repairs tissues, stores blood, and performs multiple other functions.
• True
• 5. Ancient Greeks believed the body had four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. If the Greeks were aware of modern biological practices, what would their humors be responsible for?
• Transporting antibodies
• 6. If someone was looking for the submental lymph nodes, where should they look?
• On the floor of the mouth
• 7. People infected with HIV show signs of the disease quickly.
• False
• 8. What is the connection between the locations of accessory lymphoid organs and tissues and their functions?
• They are where bacteria are likely to be found, like the intestine and adenoids
• 9. What term is used in both the lymphatic and circulatory systems?
• Capillary
• 10. Which of the following is an autoimmune disease?
• Multiple Sclerosis **
• Parkinson's
• Alzheimer's
• Influenza
• 11. The innate immune system relies on barriers and lacks any phagocytes that could kill pathogens.
• False
• 12. Which part of the body is responsible for the production of antibodies?
• White Blood Cells
• 13. Natural killer cells are a type of lymphocyte that causes a cell to bring about its own death.
• True
• 14. Liam is observing phagocytosis occurring in the liver. What is the name of the specific type of phagocyte he is observing?
• Kupffer Cells
• 15. Lymph nodes are bean- or oval-shaped nodes and can be quite large, with some exceeding 100mm in size.
• False

Quiz Review Respirtory System

• 1. What is the most superior part of the lower respiratory system?
• Trachea
• 2. What divides the nares?
• The nasal septum
• 3. A collapsed lung can be treated by inserting a chest tube to remove air or blood and allow the lung to re-inflate.
• True
• 4. In a healthy adult, ventilation (breathing) occurs 10-16 times per minute.
• True
• 5. Foreign bodies are more easily aspirated into the left lung than the right.
• False
• 6. As humans age, what is one of the ways their respiratory system weakens, not including even pollutants?
• Less flexible bronchi
• 7. In a healthy person intrapleural pressure changes distinctly from positive to negative as they inhale and exhale.
• False
• 8. What is the most superior component of the respiratory system?
• The nasal cavity
• 9. The cartilage in the trachea is the same kind that is found in the bones of immature skeletons and the joints of adults.
• True
• 10. What body parts help prevent food from entering the nasal cavities?
• Uvula and soft plate
• 11. The largest component of the lower respiratory system is the lungs.
• True
• 12. Which piece of anatomy changes how it grows during puberty based on a person's sex?
• Larynx
• 13. Why do patients with emphysema have trouble breathing?
• They have too few functional alveoli.
• 14. Alice wears a machine at night to help her breath. What disorder does she likely suffer from?
• Dyspnea
• 15. When a newborn child is on a ventilator as treatment for Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome, what is the ultimate goal for the child?
• Their alveoli will start producing surfactant.

Quiz Review Digestive System

• 1. Which body part stores bile but doesn't produce it?
• Gallbladder
• 2. Proteases break down the chains found in protein into smaller and smaller links until only their basic amino acid remains.
• True
• 3. Which disease is marked by acute infections of the bowel?
• Chron's Disease
• 4. How many "adult" teeth do humans have, barring injury or genetic anomaly?
• 32
• 5. A person's intestinal track is ABOUT as long as they are tall.
• False
• 6. If the process of absorption in the large intestine speeds up due to illness, this can cause the feces to take on the form of diarrhea.
• True
• 7. Which type of digestive process begins first?
• Ingestion
• 8. The stomach's secretions can break down food, but they don't do anything to stop invading pathogens; that's why food-borne illnesses like salmonella are so dangerous.
• False
• 9. People with eating disorders often resist getting treatment.
• True
• 10.