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Concepts in Biology Final Exam

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Cards in this deck (157)

  1. 1-Hierarchy of LifeMolecules
    Organelles
    Cells
    Tissues
    Organs
    Organisms
    Populations
    Communities
    Ecosystems
    The Biosphere
  2. 2Levels of OrganizationEach level represent the UNIT of the next level of organization
  3. 3Emergent PropertiesProperties that CANNOT be explained by the properties of the lower levels
  4. 4The shared characteristics of life-All living organisms are built of cells
    -organisms reproduce via the heredity material DNA
    -All living things grow and develop
    -living organisms capture energy from the environment
    -organisms sense and respond to their environment
    -organisms show high levels of organization
    -living organisms evolve
  5. 5Major life groupsBacteria
    Archaea
    Protists
    Plants
    Fungi
    Animals
  6. 6Charles Darwin and the origin1.Descent with Modification
    2. Natural selection
  7. 7Natural Selection-Variation
    -Struggle for Existence
    -Differential Reproduction
    ADAPTATIONS
  8. 82 Causations-Proximate causations (functional)
    -Ultimate causations (evolutionary)
  9. 92 Methods of exploration-Induction(Discovery Science)
    -Deduction(Hypthetico-deductive science)
  10. 10Griffith Experiment*Living S Strain- Mouse Dies
    *Living R stain-Healthy
    *Heat S Strain- Healthy
    *R Strain and Heat S Strain-Dies
  11. 11Hershey Chase Experiment32 P containing DNA and bacteria- blend -> Little 32P in supernatant
    35S containing phage coats and bacteria- blend -> Most 35 S in supernatant
    Conclusion: DNA, not protein enters bacterial cells and directs the assembly of new virus particles.
  12. 12Chargaff's RuleA=T
    G=C
    A and G are Purines
    T and C are Pyrimidines
  13. 13Watson and Crick.
  14. 14The double helix Model-A double stranded helix
    -Uniform diameter
    -Two strands run in opposite directions
    -Base pairing is complementary
  15. 15The structure of DNA is essential toits function: DNA replication
  16. 163 Models for DNA ReplicationSemiconservative
    Conservative
    Dispersive
  17. 17Meselson and Stahl's Experiments.
  18. 18How does genetic information get from the nucleus to the cytoplasm?Transcription
  19. 19How does genetic information is encoded to produce proteins?Translation
  20. 20Central DogmaDNA<-> RNA -> protein
  21. 21Transcription and the messenger hypothesisDNA-> Transcription(mRNA)->Translation(tRNA)-> protein
  22. 22The genetic code-A three letter word code (codon)
    -Provides the specificity for protein synthesis
    -the code is redundant
    -code is not ambiguous
    -code is universal
  23. 23ChromosomePhysically organized form of DNA in a cell
  24. 24Chromatincomplex of DNA and protein
  25. 25Sister Chromatidstwo identical strands of DNA making up a chromosome (joined at the centromere)
  26. 26How many chromosomes do humans have?46 chromosomes= 2 sets of 23 (one set from each parent)
    (Karyotype)
  27. 27Homologues2 chromosomes composing a pair
  28. 28MitosisAsexual reproduction
  29. 29MeiosisSexual reproduction
    e.g. human gametes
    n=23 Haploid
  30. 30Cell cycleMitotic phase:Mitosis and Cytokinesis
    S phase: DNA synthesis
    G1(first gap) and G2(second gap) phase: Cell growth
  31. 31MitosisInterphase
    Prophase
    Prometaphase
    Metaphase
    Anaphase
    Telophase
  32. 32Interphase.
  33. 33Prophase.
  34. 34Prometaphase.
  35. 35Metphase.
  36. 36Anaphase.
  37. 37Telophase.
  38. 38Interphase: G2Formation of 2 centrosomes (microtubule organizing cneter)= area in the cell were microtubules are produced.
    Within each centrosome-> 2 centrioles made up of microtubules
    Microtubules grow into a spindle which is responsible for separating replicated chromosomes into the 2 daughter cells
  39. 39Meiosis Iseparates homologues
  40. 40Crossing overExchange of DNA
  41. 41Meiosis IISeparates chromatids
  42. 42Differences between Mitosis and Meosis-Number of divisions
    -synapsis of homologous chromosomes
    -number of daughter cells
    -genetic composition
    -role in animal body
  43. 43Genetic Variation-independent assortment
    -crossing over
    -random fertilization
  44. 44Independent Assortment of chromosomescontributes to genetic variation due to the random orientation of tetrads at the metaphase plate
  45. 45Evolutionary adaptation depends on a populations genetic variation-darwin recognized the importance of genetic variation in evolution via natural selection.
    -a population evolve through the differential reproductive success of its variant members
    -those indv best suited to the local env leave the most offspring, transmitting their genes in the process
    -this natural selection results in adaptation , the accumulation of favorable genetic variations
  46. 46phenotype=genotype+environment
  47. 47How do we account for, and predict patterns of inheritance?Blending Inheritance
    Particulate Inheritance
  48. 48Mendels Monohybrid crosses.
  49. 49Particulate Inheritance-the units of inheritance are present in discrete particles
    -these units occur in pairs ( 2 units for each character)
    -the units segregate during the formation of gametes
    -the units retain their integrity
  50. 501.Unit of Inheritance 2. Each unit for a particular gene1. Gene
    2. Allele
  51. 51First law of mendel: Law of segregation-alternate versions of genes (alleles)= variation in heritable traits
    -for each character an organism inherits 2 alleles (one from each parent)
    -the dominant allele determines the organisms appearance
    -the 2 alleles separate during gamete formation ending up in different gametes
  52. 52What happens when parents differ at 2 or more loci?two possibilities:
    -traits may be associated
    -traits may segregate independently
  53. 53Mendel's 2nd experiment di hybrid crosees.
  54. 54Mendels law of independent assortmentAlleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation
    -meiosis and recombination account for the independent assortment of alleles
  55. 55CodominanceThe heterozygous individual expresses BOTH phenotypes
    -ex. ABO blood
  56. 56Incomplete DominanceBoth traits show
    -ex. cross with red flower and white flower =pink flower
  57. 57polygenic traits-continuous variation
    -quantitative traits
    -polygenes mediate quantitative inheritance
  58. 58EvolutionChange through time
    lineage of ancestral-decendant populations -> descent with modification
  59. 59Types of biological change1.developmental change
    2. change in the composition of ecosystems
    3. change between generations
  60. 60Evolution Transformism Creationism.
  61. 61Descent with modificationAll organisms related through descent from some unknown ancestor
  62. 62Natural SelectionDifferential Success in reproduction that leads to adaptation of populations to their environment
    -primary mechanism of adaptive evolution
    -accumulates and maintains favorable genotypes in a population
    -there is variation
    -traits are inheritable
    -differences in fitness associated with the traits
    -more individuals are produced than they are able to survive
  63. 63evidence for evolution1.on a small scale, evolution can be observed in nature (galapagos finches)
    2.Evolution can be produced experimentally (artificial selection)
    3.the concept of species and the hierarchal organization(reproductive interbreeding, phenotype sim)
    5. homologous sim among living groups(DNA)
    6.Fossil Evidence for transformation of species
    7. The order of the main groups in the fossil record.(anatomical homologies)
  64. 64Genetic variation in natural populations-gene pool
    -measuring genetic variation
    *allele frequencies, genotype frequencies,heterozgosity
  65. 65p=D+1/2H
  66. 66q=R+1/2H
  67. 67Hardy Weinberg Non-evolving Population-random mating
    -large population size
    -NO mutation
    -NO migration
    -NO selection
    *allele and genotype frequencies remain constant from generation to generation
  68. 681.Allele Frequencies 2.Genotype Frequencies1. p+q=1
    2. p^2+2pq+q^2=1
  69. 69Microevolutionary Processes-mutation
    -migration
    -genetic drift
    -natural selection
  70. 70Mutation-changes in genetic material
    -ultimate source of genetic variation
    -mutation rates are low
  71. 71Genetic Drift-Random changes in allele frequencies due to sampling -> a sampling effect
    *gametes represent a sample of the population
    -The effects of genetic drift are more drastic in SMALL populations
  72. 72Bottleneck Effect.
  73. 73Sexual selection-natural selection for mating success
    -can result in sexual dimorphism, marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics
    *Intra sexual selection(between indv)
    *Inter sexual(ex. showiness of males appearance)
  74. 74Maintaining genetic variation-geographically distinct subpopulation
    -balancing selection
    -heterz advantage
    -frequency dependent selection
    -neutral mutations
    -sexual reproduction
  75. 75Heterozygote Advantageresistance to malaria
    sickle-cell disease
  76. 76The biological species concepta pop or group of pops whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable fertile offspring but who cannot produce viable fertile offspring with members of other species
  77. 771. Anagenesis 2.Cladogenesis1.phyletic evolution
    2.branching evolution
  78. 78How do new species arise?-a barrier is established
    -populations diverge genetically
    -reproductive isolation
  79. 79Allopatric Speciationa new species form while geographically isolated from its ancestor
  80. 80Sympatric SpeciationA new species arise within the range of the ancestral species. No geographic isolation
  81. 81Parapatric SpeciationReproductive isolation develops between adjacent populations
  82. 82Factors influencing speciation rates-species richness
    -range of distribution
    -behavior
    -env changes
    -generation times
  83. 83phylogenetic trees-hypotheses about history
    -a tree is a working hypothesis
  84. 84Homology-a evolutionary term
    -implies common ancestry
    -different than similarity
  85. 85Primitive Characterscharacters common to a taxon more inclusive than the one we are trying to define( shared ancestral characters)
  86. 86Derived CharactersA character unique to a particular clade (shared derived characters)
  87. 87HomoplasiaTraits that are similar for some reason other than inheritance from a common ancestor-> convergent evo,parallel evo, eve reversals
  88. 88convergent evolution.
  89. 89Parallel EvolutionSimilar developmental processes may result in parallel evolution of similar traits in distantly related organisms
  90. 90Traits used in reconstructing phylogenies-morphology and development
    -molecular traits
    *DNA sequences
    *protein sequences
  91. 91Advantage of molecular data-DNA and proteins evolve in a much regular manner than morph or pays characters
    -more amenable to quantitative treatment
    -molecular data is abundant
    -universality of DNA or protein information
  92. 92Maximum parsimony(cladistic analysis)The BEST hypothesis is the one that requires the fewest homoplasies
  93. 93Neutral mutations vs no neutral mutations synonymous vs non-syn subsititutions.
  94. 94The neutral theory of molecular evolutionmost variations are neutral. The rate of fixation of mutations is constant and equal to the mutation rate -> the freq of neutral alleles should change slowly over time.
  95. 95Origin of genes-gene duplications
    -gene families
    -functional diversification
    -pseudogenes
  96. 96Genome Organization-Variation in genome size
    -number of genes
    -no-coding regions
  97. 97The Earth is very old-radiometric decay in fossils and rocks
    -magnetic fields of rocks
    -relative are of sedimentary rocks
    -the earth is 4.5 bya
  98. 98Changes in the Earth environment-cooling of the earth
    -increase in oxygen concentrations
    -hot/humid and cold/dry cycles
    -continental drift
    -extraterrestrial collisions
  99. 99Patterns in the fossil record1.organisms of particular types are found in rocks of specific ages
    2. as we move from ancient periods of geological time toward the present, fossil species increasingly resemble species living today
    3. extinction is inevitable fate of all speices
  100. 1003 major evolutionary fauna-cambrian fauna(trilobites, brachiopods)
    -Paleozoic fauna(sea stars,cephalopods)
    - Modern fauna(insects, birds)
  101. 101Origin of life-all life is cellular
    -major atoms: C,H,N,O,P,S
    -metabolism (biochemical reactions)
    -DNA, RNA, and proteins
    -flow of energy(ATP)
    -genomes are composed of DNA or RNA
    -reproducing systems give rise to altered phenotypes
  102. 1024 Major stages for the origin of life-abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
    -formation of complex molecules(polymers)
    -the origin of self replicating molecules
    -the formation of protobionts
  103. 103Monomers 1.Amino Acids 2.NucleotidesPolymers
    1.proteins,polypeptides
    2.nucleic acids, DNA and RNA
  104. 104Origin of protbionts-Oparins theory of coacervates
    -formation of lipid bilayer membranes
    -origin of self replicating molecules
    -formation of protobionts
  105. 105Origin of self replicating molecules: RNA-some RNA have catalytic activity(ribozymes, splicing)
    -RNA is more stable than DNA
    -RNA can be used as a template for the synthesis of DNA
    -Central dogma
  106. 106VirusesViruses (RNA and protein) are not "alive" that is they cannot replicate unless they are inside another organism
  107. 107Shared characteristics of 3 life domains-glycolisis
    -DNA>>Proteins (trans, transl)
    -universal genetic code
    -membranes and ribosomes
    -all require energy
  108. 108Each domain has distinct features-cellular organization
    -gene organization
    -translation mechanisms
  109. 1091.Photosynthetic aerobes->chloroplasts-> 2.Photobacteria->mitochondria-> 3.Methanogenes, Thremophiles ->ancestral eukaryote ->1.Photosynthetic protists->plantae
    2+3. Non photosynthetic protists ->fungi, animalia
  110. 110Critical role of prokaryotes in the biosphere-cycling of N,S and C
    -obtain energy from sun or inorganic sources
    -symbiotic relations with animals and plants
    -metabolic diversity
  111. 111The prokaryotic cell-lack nuclei, organelles and cytoskeleton
    -circular DNA and plasmids
    -infolding of plasma membrane
    -division by fission but exchange DNA
    -loco: Flagella, gas vesicles or gliding
    -protective cell walls
  112. 112Conjugation-genetic recombination
    -DNA exchange
  113. 113structural and functional adaptations of prokaryotes-cell wall w peptidogylcan
    -hair like appendages help cells adhere to surfaces
    -flagella for movement
    -formation of endospores(remain viable in harsh conditions!)
    -circular chromosome
    -rapid reproduction by binary fission
    -increased genetic variation allowing adaptive evolution due to rapid repro, mutations, and genetic recombination
  114. 114Protobacteria-largest group of bacteria
    -high metabolic diversity
    -five major groups
    -mitochondrial ancestors
  115. 115Cyanobacteria-important photoautotrophs
    -single cell and colonial
    -some form Spores
    -choloroplast ancestors
  116. 116Other types of bacteria-spirochetes
    -chlamydias
    -firmicutes
  117. 117Archea unique characteristics-close evol relationships with eukarya
    -no peptidogylcan in their cell walls
    -distinct lipids in their cell membranes
    -extremophiles and methanogens
    2 major groups: crenarchaeota and euryarchaeota
  118. 118Threats and utility of prokaryotesThreats
    -cause ~50% of human disease
    -increasing resistance to antibiotics
    -biological warfare
    Utility
    -research tool
    -nutrient cycling
    -symbiotic organisms
    -bioremediation
  119. 119Early origin of eukaryotes-arise 2.1 bya
    -dependent on water
    -oxygen key to development
    -huge diversity of life styles w increasing complexity
  120. 120Distinguishing features of eukaryotes-membrane bound organelles and nucleus
    -many nutritional modes
    -wide variety of mechanisms for movement
    -reproduce asexually and sexually
  121. 121Eukaryotic cell (compartmentalized cell)-flexible surface(loss of cell wall)
    -cytoskeleton
    -nuclear envelope
    -digestive vesicles
    -presence of organelles
  122. 122Protists-all eukaryotes that are not plants, fungi, or animals
    -structure: most unicellular
    -mobility:cilia or flagella, pseudopodia(false feet)
    -repro:asexual(fission, budding, sporulation), Sexual(mitosis, meiosis and sex),some alt of gen
  123. 123EndosymbiosisA process in which unicellular organisms engulfed other cells that evolved into organelles in the host cell (much of protist diversity resulted from this)
  124. 124Plantsphotosynthetic eukaryotes, use cholorophylls a and b, store carbohydrates as starch and develop from embryos protected by parental tissue
    -a monophyletic group
    -evolved from green algae
    -fossils -475 mya
  125. 125Terrestrial adaptations of plants-apical meristems
    -alt of gen
    -walled spores produced in sporangia
    -multicellular gametangia
    -multicellular dependent embryos
    -acquisition of a cuticle
    -vascular system
    -gas exchange and minimize water loss (stomata)
  126. 126Bryophytes-non-vascular plants
    -dominated by gametophyte stage
    -sporophyte dependent on gametophyte
    -moisture needed for reproduction
  127. 127vascular plants-flourished in carboniferous period
    -fossils date back about 429 mya.
    -ferns and other seedless vascular plants(non-tracheophytes) formed the first forests
  128. 128Main characteristics of modern vascular plants1.life cycles w dominant sporophytes
    2.transport in xylem and phloem
    3.evolution of roots
    4.evolution of leaves
    5.evolution of sporophylls and spore variation
  129. 129Homosporousone type of spore developing into a bisexual gametophyte( ferns)
  130. 130heterosporous2 types of spore (all seed plants)
    -Megaspore(develop into female gametophytes)
    -Microspore (develop into male gametophytes)
  131. 131Evolution of seed plants-360 mya.
    -gymnosperms: naked seeds
    -angiosperms:flowering plants
  132. 132Gymnosperms-naked seeds (cones)
    -abundant xylem and extensive secondary growth
    -4 plant phyla:
    cycadophyta, gingkophyta,gnetophyta,coniferophyta
    -gamertophye reduced
    -sporophyte dominant and independent
    -pollen: eliminated the moisture requirement for fertilization
  133. 133Angiosperms-flowering plants
    -double fertilization (triploid nutritive tissue and endosperm)
    -enclosed seed
    -1 phylum:anthophyta
  134. 134Advantages of a seed-develops from the whole ovule
    -is a sporophyte embryo(2n) along with its food supply, packaged in protective coat
  135. 135SystematicsFungi and Animalia as sister kingdoms(more closely related to each other than to plants or other eukaryotes)
    -supported my molecular evidence
  136. 136Features of Fungi-feed by absorption
    -large surface area and rapid growth
    -reproduce sexually or asexually from spores
    -many hace a heterokaryotic stage
    -5 major phyla:chytrids, zygomycetes,glomeromycetes,ascomycetes, basidiomycetes
  137. 137Absorptive Nutrition-fungi decompose dead organisms, fallen leaves, and other organic materials
    -ecosystems depend on fungi for nutrient cycling
    -symbionts
    -Absorptive Structures: Mycelium, exoenzymes, cell walls made of chitin
  138. 138Fungi specialized to grow and spread-concentrates on adding hypal length and absorptive surface area
    -hyphae may be coenocytic or separate
  139. 139Fungi Nutrition-heterotrophs that feed by absorption
    -secrete into their surroundings exoenzymes that break down complex molecules and then absorb the remaining smaller compounds
  140. 140Heterokaryotic Stage-nuclei of hyphae and spores are usually haploid except for transient stage
    -some mycelia may fuse, allowing for some gene exchange
  141. 141Fungi Ecology-decomposers:absorb nutrients from nonliving material
    -parasites:absorb nutrients from cells and living hosts
    -mutualistic symbionts:absorb nutrients from a living host but they also provide a benefit to the host
  142. 142What caused diversification?-oxygen levels
    -predator prey relationships
    -variation in development gene expression
  143. 143Main characteristics of animals-multicellular eukaryotes
    -heterotrophic
    -bodies held together by structural proteins such as collagen
    -unique specialized cells (muscle and Nerve)
    -reproduce sexually (dominant diploid stage)
    -tissues that develop from embryonic layers
    -SAME genes expressing different body forms: Homeobox (Hox genes)
  144. 1443 major stages in animal development-fertilization:interaction of sperm and egg
    -cleavage: repackaging the cytoplasm
    -Gastrulation:producing the body plan
  145. 145Embryonic tissuesEndoderm(digestive tract and derived organs),mesoderm(muscles and organs between digestive system and outer covering),ectoderm( outer covering and CNS)
  146. 1464 characteristics that can be used to classify organisms1.Symmetry:radial, bilateral
    2.Tissues: Diploblastic or triploblastic
    3.body cavities:coelomates, pseudocoelomates, or acoelomates
    4.cleavage and fate of the blastopore: protosomes or deuterostome
  147. 147Annelida-coelomates
    -segmented worms(series of fused rings)
    -complete digestive system
    -closed muscular circulatory system
    -ex.earthworms, leeches, marine worm
  148. 148Porifera-sponges
    -suspension feeders
    -simple: sac perforated with holes
    -complex: branches with multiple openings
    -2 cell layers separated by mesophl
    -defense:spicules, antibiotics, and other defensive compounds
  149. 149Cnidaria-carnivores that use tentacles to capture prey( cnidocytes)
    -radically symmetric
    -mostly marine
    -sessile(polyp) and floating(medusa) forms
    -true tissues:gastrovascularcavity and nerve net
    -sac with central cavity
    -ex. hydras, jellies, sea anemones and coral animals
  150. 150Platyhelminthes-acoelmates with gastrovascular cavity
    -flattened body
    -aquatic and damp habitats
    -many are parasitic
    -nervous system more complex and centralized
    -gastro cavity with only one opening--fine branches digestive system
    -ex. tapeworms
  151. 151Mollusca3 classes: Gastropoda(snails and Slugs), Bivalvia (oysters and clams)
    , Cephalopoda (octo and squids)
    -muscular foot, visceral mass, and mantle
    -most are marine
    -soft bodied animals but many protected by hard shell
  152. 152Nematoda-non-segmented pseudocoelomates covered by a tough cuticle
    -ex. nematodes or roundworms
  153. 153Arthropoda-segmented coelomates that have an exoskeleton and jointed appendages
    -hard exoskeleton
    -jointed appendages
    -well dev sensory organs, open circa systems, and specialized gas exchange organs
    -4 subphyla:cheliceriformes (spiders), Myriapoda(millipedes), Crustacea(crabs), hexapods(insects)
    -some metamorphosis
  154. 154General evolutionary trends-diplo or triploblastic
    -tissue specialization
    -segmentation
    -specialization of appendages
    -increased complexity of nervous system
  155. 155Echinodermata-ex. sea stars
    -water vascular system
    -coelomates
    -tube feet for movement
    -prominent in marine env
    -evolved secondarily from bilateral symmetry of ancestors
  156. 156Chordata-dorsal nerve cord
    -notocord
    -pharyngeal gill slits
    -post-anal tail
    -segmented musculature
  157. 157Chordates-bilaterians and deutrostomes
    -radial and indeterminate cleavage

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Flash cards for college level general biology
Created by
Deleted user · Sep 2016
Updated
Jan 8, 2017
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  • Created by mlszala · Dec 17, 2013
  • Copied by isobel thomas · Sep 27, 2016
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