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Research methods- year 1
Fichas del conjunto (108)
- 1What is a 'repeated measures' design?All participants do each level of the IV (do both tasks) and then the performance of each participant is compared for both tests
- 2Limitations of 'repeated measures' design and how could you deal with them?1) Order effects- order of conditions may affect performance of a participant as extraneous variables may arise eg: practice effect.
- Could use counterbalancing
2) Demand characteristics- ppt's may guess how they should behave in second test and adapt their behaviour - 3What is 'counterbalancing'?An experimental technique used to overcome order effects- it ensures each condition is tested equal amounts
- 4What is an 'independent groups' design?Two groups of participants- each doing different tasks and then the performance of each groups is compared
- 5Limitations of 'independent groups' design and how could you deal with them?1) Requires more participants than repeated measures in order to end up with the same amount of data
2) Researcher cannot control effects of participant variables eg: ppt's in group A may have better memory than those in group B
-Could randomly allocate ppt's to conditions which distribute the participant variables evenly - 6What is a 'matched pairs' design?Two groups are used but participants in each are matched on key characteristics believed to affect performance on DV eg: gender, age
- 7Limitations of 'matched pairs' design and how would you deal with this?1) Time consuming having to match participants up
-Could restrict the number of variables to match on
2)It's not possible to match on all participant variables, you can only match on variables known to be relevant although it could be others that are important
-Could conduct a pilot study to consider variables which might be important when matching - 8What is a strength of 'repeated measures'?1)Don't need as many participants as an independent groups design
2) Not very time consuming as use the same participants - 9What is a strength of 'independent groups'?1)Won't be an issue with order effects
2)Not very time consuming as can run two groups at the same time - 10What is a strength of 'matched pairs'?1) Avoids order effects
2)No risk of demand characteristics as ppt's only do one condition of the IV - 11What is a 'participant variable'?Extraneous variables relating to the characteristics of a participant
- 12There are two ways to counterbalance order effects for a repeated measures design. What are these ways?1) AB or BA
-Divide ppt's into 2 groups
-Group 1: each ppt does A then B
-Group 2: each ppt does B then A
2)ABBA
-Each participant takes part in each condition twice
-Trial 1: Condition A (Morning)
Trial 2: Condition B (Afternoon)
Trial 3: Condition B (Morning)
Trial 4: Condition A (Afternoon)
-We then compare scores on trial 1 and 4 with trials 2 and 3 - 13What is a lab experiment?An experiment carried out in a controlled setting
Used to investigate casual relationships between IV and DV under controlled conditions - 14Strengths of a lab experiment?Tend to have high internal validity as there is good control over variables
- 15Weaknesses of a lab study?Tend to have low ecological validity as ppt's are aware they are being studied and tasks/settings tend to be more artificial
Basically.. ppt's are less likely to behave they would in everyday life in a lab experiment - 16What is a field experiment?Controlled experiment conducted outside a lab in a more natural environment, eg: a field
Used to investigate casual relationships between IV and DV in more natural situations - 17Strengths of a field experiment?Higher ecological validity than a lab experiment as ppt's usually unaware they're being studied
- 18Weaknesses of a field experiment?1) IV may lack realism like in a lab experiment
2) It's difficult to control extraneous variables
3) Ethical issues- ppt's don't know they're being studied so it's difficult to debrief them - 19How to distinguish between field and lab experiments?Lab experiments tend to make control easier but tend to be less natural as ppt's are aware they are being studied
Field experiments tend to be more natural and representative of everyday life but they have less control and have more ethical issues - 20What is meant by a natural experiment?A method in which experimenter investigates relationships between IV and DV in situations where IV can't be manipulated
- 21Strengths of a natural experiment?1) Allows research where IV can't be manipulated for ethical reasons
2) Allows psychologists to study real problems such as the effects of disaster on health - 22Weaknesses of a natural experiment?1) Random allocation isn't possible so there may be confounding variables which cannot be controlled = this is a threat to internal validity
- 23What is a confounding variable?A variable under study which varies systematically with the IV
Could cause changes in DV rather than the IV and therefore could lead to a meaningless outcome
To confound= to confuse - 24What is meant by a quasi experiment?The IV is naturally occurring and DV may be measured in a lab
This is used to investigate relationships between an IV and DV in situations where IV is a characteristic of a person - 25Strength of a quasi experiment?1)Allows comparisons to be made between types of people
- 26Weakness of quasi experiment?1) Can only be used where conditions vary naturally
2) Participants may be aware they are being studied= a lack of internal validity - 27What are some problems that could occur with experiments?-Demand characteristics
-Investigator effects - 28What is meant by demand characteristics?These are cues which make participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps them to work out what a researcher expects to find
- 29What is meant by investigator effects?Anything an investigator does that has an effect on a ppt's performance in a study other than what is intended
They may act as an extraneous or confounding variable - 30What is an example of an indirect investigator effect?The 'investigator experimental design effect'
This could involve an investigator operationalising measurement of variables in a way that the desired result is more likely - 31How might psychologists deal with experimental problems? (3 possible ways)1) Single blind design
2) Double blind design
3) Experimental realism - 32What is meant by a single blind design?In this design, ppt's are aware of research aims and/or which condition of the experiment they're receiving
This prevents ppt's from seeking cues about aims and reacting to them - 33What is meant by a double blind design?When both ppt and conductor of experiment are blind to the aims and hypothesis
This means person conducting experiment is less likely to produce cues about what they expect - 34What is meant by experimental realism?When a researcher tries to make an experimental task engaging so ppt pays attention to task rather than the fact they're being observed
- 35How do you carry out an opportunity sample?Recruit the people who are most convenient/ available
- 36Strength of an opportunity sample?It's the easiest method as you find the first suitable ppt's you can
- 37Limitation of an opportunity sample?Biased- sample is drawn from a small part of population
- 38How is a random sample done?By using a technique such as drawing names out of a hat so that each population has an equal chance of being selected
- 39Strength of a random sample?1) Unbiased- everyone has equal chance of selection
- 40Weakness of a random sample?1) Time consuming- need to have a list of all members of population and then contact all those selected
- 41How is a stratified sample done?Subgroups within a population are identified and then ppt's are obtained fro, each of the sub groups in proportion to their occurrence in the population
Selection is done using a random technique - 42Strength of a stratified sample?1)Likely to be more representative than other methods as there is a proportional and random representation of sub groups
- 43Weakness of stratified sample?Time consuming to identify subgroups and then randomly select ppts
- 44How is a systematic sample done?Use a pre-determined system to select ppts such as selectine every 6th/ 12th ppt
- 45Strength of a systematic sample?1) Unbiased- ppt's selected using an objective system
- 46Weakness of a systematic sample?1) Not truly unbiased unless you select a number using a random method and start with this person and then use every nth person
- 47How is a volunteer sample done?Advertise in a newspaper/noticeboard etc
- 48Strength of a volunteer sample?1) Gives access to a variety of ppts- less biased and more representative
- 49Weakness of a volunteer sample?1) Sample is biased in other ways- ppt's are more likely to be motivated and may have more time on their hands (volunteer bias)
- 50What is meant by the 'population' in a study?The group of individuals a researcher is interested in
- 51What is meant by a 'sample'?A smaller group of a population an experimenter studies
Ideally this sample will be representative of a population so generalisations can be made about population - 52What is meant by the term bias?When something is somehow distorted
- 53What are the 6 ethical guidelines in psychology?1) Informed consent
2)Deception
3) Right to withdraw
4) Protection from harm
5) Confidentiality
6) Privacy - 54What are ethics?Standards which concern any group of professional people
- 55In psychology, what is an ethical issue?A conflict between what the researcher needs to do in order to conduct meaningful research and the rights of participants
- 56The most recent code of ethics and conduct (BPS) identifies four key principles. what are they?1) Respect for ppt's- this includes privacy, informed consent and confidentiality
2)Competence- psychologists should maintain high standards in their work
3)Responsibility- this includes protecting participants from harm as well as debriefing them
4) Integrity- psychologists should be both honest and accurate.. this includes reporting their findings of research accurately and acknowledging potential limitations - 57What are some strategies to deal with ethical issues?The BPS updates code of conduct regularly
- 58What is the intention of the BPS guidelines?To tell psychologists which behaviours are acceptable and to give guidance on how to deal with ethical guidelines
- 59What is a cost- benefit analysis?A systematic approach to estimating the positives and negatives of any research
- 60How might a cost-benefit analysis take place?Costs and benefits could be judged from a ppt's point of view
They might list distress and loss of time Vs a feeling off having contributed to scientific research
OR
We can judge costs and benefits in terms of society
They might consider value of improving people's lives Vs possibility individuals could be harmed in the process - 61What do most institutions where research takes place have?An ethics committee
This is a group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins
They look at all possible ethical issues raised in a research proposal and at how researcher suggests issues will be dealt with weighing up benefits of research against costs to ppts - 62If a psychologist behaves in an unethical way then then what does the BPS do?They review the research and may decide to bar the person from practicing as a psychologist although this won't be a legal matter such as prison
- 63Limitation of a cost-benefit analysis?1) It's difficult to predict costs and benefits prior to conducting a study and it's difficult to assess them even after conducting a study
2) A psychologist suggested a cost-benefit approach solves nothing as you only exchange one set of dilemmas for another..and another psychologist said it legitimises unethical practices
eg: suggests deception is okay as long as benefits are high enough - 64How to potentially deal with informed consent ethical issues?Either gain actual consent
or
gain presumptive consent- asking a group of people similar to ppt's whether they would agree to take part and they presume real ppt's would think the same - 65How to potentially deal with deception ethical issues?Ppt's should be fully debriefed- this involves them knowing the true nature of the study
- 66How to potentially deal with the right to withdraw ethical issues?Ppt's should be told at start of experiment that they have the right to withdraw
- 67How to potentially deal with protection from harm ethical issues?Stop the study if harm is suspected
- 68How to potentially deal with confidentiality ethical issues?Researchers should not record names of ppt's-- they should use numbers or fake names
- 69How to potentially deal with privacy ethical issues?Don't study anyone without informed consent unless in a public place and public behaviour
- 70What is a naturalistic observation?An observation carried out in an everyday setting
Investigator doesn't interfere in any way, only observes behaviours in question - 71What is a controlled observation?A form of investigation where behaviour is observed under controlled conditions
Certain variables will be organised by the researcher- this reduces naturalness of the study - 72In both naturalistic and controlled observations if the ppt is aware of being observed what is this called?An overt observation
- 73What is a limitation of an overt observation and what could be done in attempt to stop this?Can reduce naturalness of a ppt's behaviour
Observers try and limit how obvious they're being eg: use a one-way mirror - 74What is a covert observation?Ppt's have no knowledge of being observed
They could possibly be told afterwards - 75What is a non- participant observation?When observer is only observing from a distance/ they don't interact with the people they're observing
- 76What is a participant observation?Observer is part of the group being observed
- 77What's a strength and a weakness of using a covert observation?Strength: Ppt's unaware they're being observed- behaviour is more natural
Weakness: ethical issues- no informed consent - 78Strength and weakness of a naturalistic observation?Strength: High in ecological validity- gives realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour
Weakness: there is no control over behaviours happening which may lead to unreliable findings - 79Strength and weakness of a controlled observation?Strength: There is control over behaviours
Weakness: lacks ecological validity.. very unrealistic - 80What is an unstructured observation and whats a problem with this?Researcher records all relevant behaviour without a system
However there is too much data to record and the ones recorded may only be the most eye-catching ones - 81What is a structured observation?When a researcher uses systems to organise their observations
- 82What is meant by behavioural categories?This is how behaviours are categorised within an observation
- 83What should behavioural categories be?-Objective
-Cover all possible behaviours
-Be exclusive (ensure you didn't have to mark 2 behaviours at a time) - 84What is event sampling?An observational technique where a count is kept of the number of times an event (behaviour) occurs
- 85What is time sampling?An observational technique where observer records behaviours in a given time frame
- 86What is a questionnaire?When data is collected through the use of written questions
- 87What is an interview?A face to face technique used to collect data
- 88What is both a structured and unstructured interview?Structured: has pre-determined questions...can't deviate from original questions
Unstructured: has general aims and maybe some questions but lets interviewee's answers guide questions - 89Strength and weakness of using a questionnaire?Strength: they are easy to conduct and can be easily distributed to large numbers of people
Weakness: data is only filled in by people who are willing to take the time to do so - 90Strength and weakness of using a structured interview?Strength: can be easily repeated as the questions are standardised
Weakness: interviewers might influence answers (interviewer bias)so they have to learn skills to prevent this as far as possible - 91Strength and weakness of an unstructured interview?Strength: can get more detailed information from respondents than in a structured interview
Unstructured: interviewers have to have more training as they have to come up with new questions on the spot= training can be expensive - 92General weaknesses of self-report techniques?1) May not provide truthful answers- may be a social desirability bias
2) Sample of people used may not be representative so data can't be generalised - 93What is a social desirability bias?A distortion to how someone answers questions.. tend to answer in a way that presents them in a better light
- 94What are the three things that need to be considered when writing good questions for a questionnaire?1) Has to be clarity in the questions
2)They have got to consider bias- in particular, they have got to be aware of social desirability bias
3)They have to be written so answers are easy to analyse - 95What needs to be considered to write a good questionnaire?-Has to be good questions
-Filler questions (to distract respondent from main purpose of survey)
-Sequence for questions: it's best to start with easy ones and leave ones that could cause anxiety till respondent is relaxed
-Sampling technique has to be suitable .. for questionnaires it's often stratified
-Pilot study: questions should be tested on small groups of people - 96Why might an interviewer record notes throughout the interview?To document answers
BUT
can interfere with interviewer's listening skills
SO... alternatively, could audio record interview - 97What's a strength of conducting interviews rather than a questionnaire?The presence of an interviewer who's interested in answers which may increase amount of info provided (even in a structured interview)
- 98interviewer's need to be aware of behaviours that could demonstrate their interest in participant's answers by...?-Non-verbal communication: eg-head nodding / frowning disapproval
-Listening skills: interviewer needs to know hope and when to speak so they don't interrupt too often - 99What should interviewers avoid when questioning participants in follow ups from an interview?-Avoid repeating questions already asked
-Avoid probing for a desirable answer - 100What is an open question?Questions which invite respondents to provide their own answers
- 101What is a closed question?Questions which have a pre-determined set of answers where respondents will choose one
- 102Evaluation of open questions?Strength: ppt's can expand on their answers increasing the amount of detail in the information collected
Weakness: difficult to draw conclusions from this data as it produces qualitative data - 103Evaluation of closed questions?Strength: produce quantitative data which is easy to summarise and draw conclusions from
Weakness: data can lack validity as ppt's may feel they have to select an answer they doesn't represent them - 104What graph could be used to represent a correlation?Scattergram
- 105What is a difference between a correlation and an experiment?Experiment: investigator changes IV to observe effect of on DV
Correlation: variables are simply measured, no deliberate changes are made meaning no conclusions can be drawn about one variable affecting the other - 106Evaluation of using correlations?Strength: They have their own special values- if correlation is significant then investigation is justified
Weakness: They fail to consider intervening variables which could explain why the co-variables are actually linked - 107What is an intervening variable?A variable which comes between two other variables which explains the association between those two variables
eg: if a positive correlation was found between ice cream sales and violence the intervening variable could be heat which increases both of these things - 108What are the different types of correlations?Positive: two variables increase together
Negative: as one variable increases the other decreases
Zero: there is no relationship
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- A level Psychology Fichas sobre Research methods- year 1, creado por Ashleigh Johnson el 27/03/2018.
- Creado por
- Ashleigh Johnson
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