Fichas
Medicine Through Time
Fichas del conjunto (81)
- 1Medieval England1250 - 1500
- 2What were the supernatural and religious explanations about the causes of disease?- Astrology and the alignment of the planets
- Star signs
- God sent disease/illness as punishment for people's sins - 3What were the natural explanations for the causes of disease?- Theory of the 4 Humours
- Miasma Theory - 4How did Galen expand the theory of the 4 humours?He suggested that the humours should be rebalanced by using the theory of opposites
- 5What was Galen's 'Theory of Opposites'?e.g. things caused by cold should be treated with hot things such as chilli peppers to rebalance the humour
- 6Why did the Church promote Galen's ideas?Galen believed in the idea of the soul which fitted in with the teachings of the church
- 7What were the supernatural and religious approaches to preventing and treating illness?- Many people turned to the church ~ healing prayers, fasting, flagellation and going on pilgrimages
- Star charts used to prescribe treatments
- Horoscope of the patient was also considered. - 8What were the natural approaches to preventing and treating illness?- Bloodletting (to balance the humours) by cutting the vein, placing leeches on the skin, or cupping [where a heated cup was placed over skin that had been pierced by a knife to create a vacuum and draw out more blood]
- Purging to balance the humours
- Herbal remedies
- People encouraged to exercise, sleep well, keep clean, breathe clean air and avoid stress (This guidance was given in the 'regimen sanitatis')
- People purified the air by spreading sweet herbs and carrying flowers (a posy) - 9What was the Black Death in 1348-1349?An outbreak of the bubonic plague
- 10What percentage of the population was it thought to have killed?40%
- 11What were the beliefs about the causes of the Black Death- God had sent the disease as a punishment
- An unusual alignment of the planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn in 1345
- An imbalance of the 4 humours or the existence of evil humours within the body
- Bad air (miasma) which had corrupted the body's humours. This evil air was thought to have been released by a volcano or an earthquake - 12What were the approaches to the treatment of the Black Death?- People prayed, confessed their sins, donated and asked God for forgiveness
- Holy charms were worn to show one's religious beliefs
- Bleeding, purging, and treatments based on Galen's opposites theory
- People would sniff strong-smelling herbs (e.g. myrrh) to replace the bad air in their body]
- Fires would be lit to remove the bad air and replace it with the smoke + fumes released from the fire
- The buboes would be lanced to release the pus in the hope that it would cure the patient of the disease - 13What attempts were made to prevent the spread of the Black Death?- People prayed to God to avoid punishment
- King + Bishops ordered processions in every church at least once a day
- People went on pilgrimages and made sacrifices to God (e.g fasting)
- Flagellants whipped themselves to ask for God's forgiveness
- People carried posies and sweet-smelling herbs + flowers
- Rakers cleared animal dung from streets
- Fines for throwing litter were increased
- Butchers had to use segregated areas to butcher animals or they would face punishment
- Ringing bells and birds were used to keep the air moving
- New quarantine laws were issued to prevent the movement of people
- The authorities quarantined the houses of victims - 14The Medical Renaissance1500 - 1700
- 15Name areas of continuity in the explanations of the causes of disease and illness- Miasma theory
- Influence of the Church
- Supernatural ~ by the 1500s, astrology was less popular, but during epidemics people still wore charms as protection from evil spirits - 16Name some of the changes in the explanations of the causes of disease?- Decline in the influence of the church
- Theory of the 4 humours was discredited and wasn't believed by physicians by the end of the 17th century (However, it was still used to diagnose illnesses as patients understood it)
- Urine analysis ~ Physicians now knew that urine wasn't linked to ill health and they no longer used it to diagnose illness - 17What did Thomas Sydenham believe in in terms of diagnosing and treating patients?- Symptoms should be closely observed and noted down in detailed descriptions
- Remedies to treat the disease should be looked for rather than relying on medical books - 18What nickname was Sydenham given and why?- 'The English Hippocrates'
- Because like Hippocrates, he placed great importance on observing a patient - 19When was the Printing Press invented and what influence did it have?It was invented in 1440 and it enabled medical information to spread further and more quickly. It also contributed to the decline in the influence of the church. Physicians were now able to publish books that criticised Galen.
- 20What was the Royal Society and when was it founded?It was a group of scientists and physicians who discussed new ideas in astronomy, medicine and science. It made it possible for them to study each other's work and it also sponsored scientists and assisted them with the publication of their ideas. It was founded in London in 1660.
- 21Name the areas of continuity in approaches to prevention, treatment and care- Bloodletting, purging and sweating
- Herbal remedies
- The practice of Regimen Sanitatis (exercise, fresh air, keeping clean etc)
- The removal of bad air
- Treatment of the sick by apothecaries and surgeons for those who couldn't afford a physician
- Women cared for the sick who didn't go to hospitals - 22Name the areas of change in approaches to prevention, treatment and care- People started to believe in transference (the belief that an illness/disease could be transferred to something else)
- People began to look for chemical cures for diseases rather than relying on herbs and bloodletting
- Ideas that weather conditions were the cause of diseases became more popular so people would relocate to avoid disease
- Renaissance hospitals began to treat people with wounds and curable diseases such as fevers
- Hospitals that specialised in one particular disease were new in this period. They became known as pest houses, plagues houses or poxhouses - 23Name the ideas about causes of the Great Plague in London in 1665- Astrology: An unusual alignment of the planets
- Punishment from God to cleanse man of his sins
- An imbalance of the humours
- Miasma
- Person to person by touch - 24Name the ideas about prevention and treatments of the Great Plague in London in 1665- Prayers were recited
- Plague victims were quarantined for 28 days and the door was painted with a cross alongside the words 'Lord have mercy upon us'
- People were encouraged to carry a pomander (a ball containing perfumed substances) to drive away the bad air
- Fasting took place and some changed their diet to include a lot of garlic
- Plague doctors treated patients wearing birdlike masks (birds were believed to attract disease away from the patient), with sweet-smelling herbs inside to ward off miasma
- Smoking tobacco to ward off miasma
- Local authorities tried to prevent the plague from spreading by:
~ banning public meetings, funerals and fairs
~ closing theatres
~ sweeping streets clean
~ burning barrels of tar and sweet-smelling herbs to ward off miasma
~ killing cats and dogs
~ appointing searchers to monitor the spread of disease and clear victims' bodies from towns - 25Name some of the improvements in medical training- Wars were being fought with new technology, which led to new wounds that required more surgery
- The increase in available chemicals led to new ingredients being available for apothecaries - 26Name some areas of continuity in medical training- Physicians continued to train at universities with little change
- Dissection was legalised due to the decline in the power of the church, but it was difficult to get a supply of fresh corpses to work on. Therefore, physicians still trained from books (e.g. Galen)
- Physicians were inspired to challenge the old ideas and investigate for themselves
- The printing press meant that more books were available for physicians to study - 27When did Vesalius publish his book and what was it called?-1543
- 'On the Fabric of the Human Body' - 28What did Vesalius learn/discover?- He found around 300 mistakes in Galen's work: human lower jaw bone has 1 bone not 2, human breastbone has 3 parts not 7, men do not have 1 fewer pair of ribs than women, the human liver does not have 5 separate lobes
- He corrected these mistakes and encourage other doctors to base their work on dissection rather than old books.
- Vesalius explained these mistakes by pointing out that Galen dissected animals rather than humans - 29What impact did Vesalius have?- Anatomy became central to the study of medicine and doctors were encouraged to carry out dissections for themselves
- His work was heavily copied and appeared in other medical texts
- His work inspired other anatomists. After Vesalius' death, Fabricius went on to discover valves in human veins and shared his discovery with William Harvey
- Vesalius caused a lot of controversy because he had challenge the ideas of Galen. This angered traditional physicians who argued that the human body hadn't changed since the ideas of Galen. - 30What did William Harvey discover?The circulation of the blood
- 31More on William Harvey:- his research involved dissecting human corpses and cutting open cold-blooded animals as they had a slower heartbeat and this enabled their blood to be observed while they were still alive
- Harvey's research proved that arteries and veins were linked together in one system
- His theory was that blood must pass from arteries to veins through tiny passages invisible to the naked eye. Today we know these to be capillaries
- Harvey corrected Galen and showed that only the veins carried blood and that the heart acted as a pump. - 32What was Harvey's impact?- His theory encouraged other scientists to experiment on actual bodies
- However, his discovery had little practical use in medical treatment and led to very little change
- Some openly criticised him as he didn't have a powerful enough microscope to prove that capillaries existed. He was said to be mad - 331700 - 1900Medicine in eighteenth and nineteenth century Britain
- 34What were the areas of continuity in the explanations of the causes of disease and illness?- Ideas hadn't changed by the eighteenth century
- People still believed in the theory of the 4 humours
- People still believed in the miasma theory (but this theory was losing popularity) - 35What were the areas of change in the explanations of the causes of disease and illness?- Scientific thinking led to a change in medical understanding at the end of this period (when Germ Theory was developed)
- Spontaneous generation theory - 36What was the Spontaneous generation theory?Microscopes improved = could see microbes on decaying matter --> some scientists developed this theory in the early 18th century. They argued that the microbes were a product of the decay, rather than the cause of it, and that they spread by miasma.
- 37What did Louis Pasteur publish in 1861 and what did he prove?He published his Germ Theory and he proved that germs were causing liquids to decay
- 38What did his discovery lead him to believe about the cause of disease/illness?That germs were causing disease in the human body
- 39What impact did Pasteur's theory have?- Little immediate impact on medicine as doctors and surgeons couldn't see Pasteur's microbes
- Some impact on the work of Joseph Lister who linked GT to the infection in his patients. However, Lister's ideas were doubted as he couldn't prove his theory. With the presence of microbes in the organs of healthy people, it seemed impossible that they could be the cause of disease and illness
- In the long term, his discovery led to changes in preventing disease with vaccinations and the introduction to antiseptic and aseptic surgery - 40What did Robert Koch discover and how was he able to make his discovery?- He discovered the different microbes that caused common individual diseases (1876=anthrax, 1882=TB and typhoid, 1883=cholera)
- His co-workers also went on to discover the microbes for diphtheria, pneumonia, meningitis, the plague and tetanus - 41What influence did Robert Koch have in Britain? (positive)- He made it easier to see microbes by developing a dye that would stain them
- His new method of growing microbes enabled other scientists to study specific diseases
- His work inspired other scientists to look for the microbes responsible for other diseases - 42What influence did Robert Koch have in Britain? (negative)- The discovery of germs and different bacteria alone didn't have an impact on medical treatment. It took time for cures and vaccines to be developed
- Initially the British Government rejected the idea of Germ Theory. Even when Koch went to Calcutta and proved that cholera was caused by microbes in the drinking water, they ignored this and continued to believe in miasma - 43What were some of the changes that took place in hospitals? (Florence Nightingale)- From the 18th century, more people were treated in hospitals, but this led to less sanitary conditions
- Florence Nightingale trained as a nurse in Germany and Paris before being sent by the Gov to the Crimea to improve hospitals during the Crimean War
- Nightingale noticed the high death rate among soldiers
- alongside 38 nurses, Nightingale made changes: Wards were cleaned of any dirt, organisation was improved and patients were given clean bedding and meals. Within 6 months the death rate was down from 40% to 2%
- Nightingale returned to Britain, campaigning for cleaner hospitals and improved training for nurses. In 1860 she set up the the Nightingale school for Nurses
- Nightingale also influenced the way hospitals were designed. By 1900 they looked very different: were built from materials that could be cleaned easily and had separate wards. - 44What were some of the changes that took place in surgery? (James Simpson and Joseph Lister)- In the 18th Century, surgery was dangerous. Patients faced the problems of pain, infection and bleeding
- In 1847, James Simpson discovered chloroform as an anaesthetic
- Doctors had to be careful using chloroform as the dosage had to be carefully controlled. In 1848 Hannah Greener died from an overdose during an operation to get her toenail removed
- Chloroform continued to be used and was given a royal blessing in 1853 when Queen Victoria used it during the birth of her son
- The problem of infection was overcome in 1865 by Joseph Lister
- He used Carbolic Acid to clear bacteria from the wounds of patients. This became known as antiseptic surgery
- Unfortunately, his ideas faced opposition as the medical profession took time to understand Germ Theory. The carbolic spray was unpleasant to use (it dried out the skin of surgeons and left an odd smell) from 1890, aseptic surgery was performed - 45What is the difference between Antiseptic and Aseptic surgery?Antiseptic = the removal of bacteria from an operation
Aseptic = surgery that takes place in a strictly controlled germ-free environment - 46What was initially used to prevent smallpox and how did it work?- inoculation
- deliberately infecting oneself with a disease in order to build up an immunity to said disease and avoid catching a more severe form of the disease later on - 47What were the negatives of inoculation?- Expensive = only available to the rich
- It was dangerous as it caused some patients to get a bad case of that disease and could lead to death - 48Who developed the smallpox vaccine and how?- Edward Jenner
- He was a country doctor who observed that milkmaids who had previously suffered from cowpox didn't catch smallpox during the epidemics. He believed the two were connected and went on to test his theory in 1796. He gave James Phipps a small dose of cowpox and six weeks later infected him with smallpox, but Phipps didn't catch it. Jenner repeated his experiment with the same success before publishing his findings. - 49Why did many people not accept Jenner's vaccinations?- He was unable to explain how or why it worked. Pasteur didn't publish his Germ Theory until 1861 and so Jenner didn't know that bacteria caused disease
- The idea of infecting someone with an animal disease was coned strange and unacceptable. Many religious believers thought it was against God's law to give people an animal disease
- Inoculator's businesses were put under threat
- The Royal society refused to publish Jenner's findings as it was thought that his ideas were too revolutionary
- The Anti-Vaccine Society was set up in 1866 to oppose vaccination. It published cartoons to scare people into not trusting the vaccine. - 50When did the British Government make the smallpox vaccination compulsory and what impacts did it have?- 1852
- Smallpox was eradicated as a disease in 1980
- Jenner's work inspired other scientists, like Pasteur and Koch, to develop vaccines. Pasteur went on to develop vaccines for chicken cholera, anthrax and rabies - 51How did people try to prevent the spread of cholera when it broke out in Soho, London in 1854?- Burning barrels of tar to remove the bad air
- Smoking cigars to protect against the bad air
- Praying and burning the clothes and bedding of victims - 52How did John Snow investigate Cholera?- He created a spot map to show the deaths from cholera that occurred around Broad Street in London
- He noticed a pattern: the deaths were all connected to the water pump
- He removed the handle of the water pump and prevented people from using it
- There were no more deaths in the Broad Street area from cholera
- Snow inspected the well underneath the pump and found that it was close to a cesspit with a cracked lining. This caused waste to seep into the water and spread cholera - 53What was the Great Stink?The hot, dry summer of 1858 caused an awful smell from the exposed sewage on the banks of the river Thames in London.
- 54What did John Snow's evidence and the Great Stink lead to?The Government agreed to build a new sewer system which was planned by Joseph Bazalgette. By 1865, 1300 miles of sewers had been built in London and this project was completed in 1875.
- 55Why did many people reject John Snow's work?- He had no scientific evidence to explain the cause of cholera
- It would need Pasteur's Germ Theory and Robert Koch's identification of the cholera microbe before Snow's theory could be explained - 56Why attitude did the British Government have towards public health and what does it mean?- Laissez-Faire attitude
- From the French for 'leave alone'. They believed it was not their role to intervene in the health of the people - 57What were the reasons why the government's attitude changed during the 19th century?- Cholera continued to return to Britain and it killed more people. The gov enlisted John Snow and Louis Pasteur
- In 1842, Edwin Chadwick published his 'Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Classes'. He spent years researching the lives of the poor in Britain's cities and he concluded that people living in cities had a lower life expectancy due to the filthy conditions. He believed all cities should have a Board of Health that ensured the supply of clean water and disposal of sewage. There was initially opposition to Chadwick's ideas due to the need to increase taxes and for the gov to get involved in local matters
- The gov did little at first, but as more scientific evidence emerged that showed clean water was important for a healthy population, the gov took more action
- 1866-1867 saw the last cholera epidemic in Britain and it had a lower death count than previous cholera epidemics - 58What was involved in the first Public Health Act of 1848?- Cities were encouraged to set up Boards of Health and provide clean water supplies
- However, as it wasn't compulsory, many did not - 59What was involved in the second Public Health Act of 1875?Cities were forced to improve sanitary conditions by:
- providing clean water to stop the spread of disease
- disposing of sewage to avoid pollution
- building public toilets
- employing a public officer of health to monitor conditions and outbreaks of disease
- creating street lighting - 601900 - presentMedicine in modern Britain
- 61How was the human gene discovered?- In 1953, Francis Crick and James Watson saw the X-Rays of DNA created by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
- Watson and Crick built their own model of DNA. Franklin corrected it and Wilkins shared clearer images with the team
- This helped Crick and Watson to understand the Double Helix structure of DNA - 62What was the process of the mapping of the human genome?- Once the structure of DNA was understood, scientists were able to break it apart and look at the parts that caused hereditary diseases (e.g. haemophilia)
- The Human Genome Project began in 1990 and was completed in 2000. Scientists all over the world worked to decode and map the human genome. This map is used to look for mistakes in the human genome of people suffering from genetic conditions - 63What was the impact of the discovery of DNA?- It hasn't led to the treatment of genetic conditions
- However it has given options to prevent diseases after the identification of particular genes. e.g. breast cancer. Women can have their breasts removed if the gene linked to the disease is identified in their DNA in order to prevent them from possibly developing cancer - 64How has the development of technology improved diagnosis? Give examples of technology and their uses- X-ray = diagnose broken bones
- CT and MRI scans = diagnose internal damage, tumours and other growths
- Ultrasound = diagnose kidney stones, image an unborn baby
- ECG = measure irregular heart movement
- Endoscope = investigate digestive problems
- Blood testing = diagnose illness
- Blood pressure monitor = diagnose high and low blood pressure - 65What is a magic bullet?A chemical cure that attacks microbes which cause a particular disease, without side-effects
- 66When was the first magic bullet developed? Also give the name of the person who developed it and the name of the drugSalvarsan 606 was developed in 1909 by Paul Ehrlich
- 67Name another magic bullet that was developed shortly afterProntosil to cure blood poisoning. Developed in 1932 by Gerhard Domagk
- 68What is an antibiotic?A medicine that destroys or limits the growth of bacteria in the human body
- 69What was the first antibiotic and when was it discovered?Penicillin. It was discovered in 1928
- 70Who discovered penicillin and how?Alexander Fleming. He was researching substances that would cure simple infections. In 1928, he notices mould on a dirty petri dish that had killed the harmful Staphylococcus bacteria that was growing in the dish. This mould was Penicillin. Fleming published his findings in an article but didn't pursue this any further
- 71Who developed Penicillin and how?- 1939 --> Howard Florey and Ernst Chain were researching antibiotics and they used Fleming's article. They grew their own penicillin and began experimenting
- 1940 --> Florey and Chain tested Penicillin on infected mice. It cured the infection
- 1941 --> They had a human patient (a policeman suffering from blood poisoning). They only had a small amount of penicillin but began their experiment. The policeman began to recover. However, the drug was difficult to produce in large quantities and so they ran out and the patient died
- However, this allowed them to prove that penicillin worked at fighting infections in the human body - 72Why did the mass production of penicillin begin?Florey and Chain needed a factory that could mass produce penicillin and went to the USA for help. The US gov funded 21 pharmaceutical companies to mass produce it. By D-Day in June 1944, enough penicillin had been produced to treat all allied casualties (over 2.3million doses)
- 73Give examples of high-tech medical surgical treatment that has been developed since 1900- Radiotherapy and chemotherapy
- Dialysis
- Prosthetic limbs
- Transplant surgery
- Keyhole surgery - 74When did the British Government set up the NHS and how does it provide care?- 1948
- Through; hospitals, general practitioners (GP's), dentists, ambulance services, health visitors - 75What improvements were made to the NHS during the 1960s?- ensuring that hospitals were available across the whole of Britain
- giving GP's incentives to ensure they were up to date with medical developments - 76When did the British Gov introduce compulsory vaccinations and give 2 examples of the vaccinationsThey introduced them in the 20th century.
e.g. diphtheria in 1942
polio in 1950 - 77Give 2 laws that the government passed to ensure healthy living conditions- Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968 to prevent smog caused by air pollution
- the Health Act of 2006 --> part of this said that it was illegal to smoke in all enclosed workplaces - 78Give 2 examples of government lifestyle campaigns- advertising campaigns that warn against the dangers to health from binge drinking and drug use
- encouraging people to eat more healthily and get more exercise (e.g. the change4life campaign) - 79Name two pieces of technology used to diagnose lung cancer- PET-CT scan
- Bronchoscope - 80Name some of the treatments for lung cancer- operations to remove the tumour
- transplants
- radiotherapy
- chemotherapy - 81Name some of the actions the government took to prevent lung cancer- banned smoking in all public places in 2007, extended to cars carrying children in 2015
- raised the legal age for buying tobacco from 16 to 18 in 2007
- banned tobacco advertising in 1965, and banned cigarette advertising entirely in 2005
- removed cigarette products from display in shops in 2012
- introduced stop smoking campaigns and insisted on plain packaging
- There is an increase in the taxation on tobacco products each year
Información
- Descripción
- Fichas sobre Medicine Through Time, creado por Sophie Ball el 29/05/2018.
- Creado por
- Sophie Ball
- Visitas
- 7
- Valoración