Ch. 7 Memory

Ch. 7 Memory

1. Main processes involved in human memory (ESR model)

   • Encoding: The first step of the ESR memory model; process of moving sensory information into memory storage
   • Storage: The second step of the ESR memory model; retention of encoded information over time
   • Recall: The third step of the ESR memory model; recovery of information from memory storage

2. Traditional Three Stage Memory Model

   • First Stage: Sensory Memory- holds sensory information; it has relatively large capacity, but the duration is only a few seconds
   • Second Stage: Short Term Memory (STM)- temporarily stores sensory information & sends & receives information to & from LTM
     • Capacity limited to 5 to 9 items has a duration of 30 seconds
     • Maintenance rehearsal: The act of repeating information in order to maintain it in STM
     • Chucking: memory technique involving grouping separate pieces of information into larger, more manageable units (chunks)
   • Third Stage: Long Term Memory (LTM)- stores information for long periods of time; the capacity is virtually limitless; duration is relatively permanent
     • Improve Memory: Organization  Rehearsal  Retrieval Mnemonic: strategy device that uses familiar information during the encoding of new information to enhance later recall
     • Semantic memory: subsystem of LTM that stores general knowledge; a mental dictionary (facts)
     • Declarative (explicit) memory: subsystem of LTM that involves consious, easily described memories; consists of the episodic & semantic memory
       • Explicit memory (also called "declarative memory") is one of the two major subdivisions of long-term memory. (The other is implicit memory.) Explicit memory requires conscious thought—such as recalling who came to dinner last night or naming animals that live in the rainforest.
     • Episodic memory: subsystem of LTM that stores the mental diary of a persons life
     • Elaborative rehearsal: A process of forming numerous connection of new information to material already stored in LTM
     • Procedural memory: part of the LTM that is responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills
     • Implicit memory (also called "nondeclarative" memory) is a type of long-term memory that stands in contrast to explicit memory in that it doesn't require conscious thought. It allows you to do things by rote. This memory isn't always easy to verbalize, since it flows effortlessly in our actions.
       • Priming: exposure (often unconscious) to previously stored information that predisposes (primes) ones response to related stimuli
     • Memory consolidation is the process where our brains convert short-term memories into long-term ones.

3. Memory Retrieval

   • The first form of memory retrieval is recognition. Memories retrieved this way are identified by the brain based on some external clue. Basically, the mind recognizes that something is familiar, and is then able to retrieve the memory based on that association
   • The second main form of memory retrieval is recall. Recall describes retrieving a memory without any additional clues. It's simply remembering, drawing information out of the memory banks and using it.
   • The third main form of memory retrieval is relearning. Relearning, also known as the Savings Method, is a way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten
   • Serial-position effect is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst.
     • Misinformation Effect: memory error resulting from misleading information being presented after an event; alters memories of the event itself
     • Source Amnesia:Forgetting the origin of a previously stored memory
       • Retrograde amnesia: inability to recall past memories after trauma (amnesia)
       • Anterograde amnesia: inability to create new memories after trauma (amnesia)

4. Forgetting

   • Retroactive Interference: memory problem that occurs when new information disrupts the recall of olf information (acting backward in time) [learning your new home address may make you forget your old home address
   • Proactive interference: memory information that occurs when old information disrupts new information (forward acting) [old information, like learning Arabic in High School, will interfere with learning French in college]
   • Forgetting Theories
     • Motivated Forgetting Theory: based on the idea (by Freud) that people forget unpleasant or anxiety producing information, either (un)consciously
     • Encoding Failure Theory: our sensory memory receives the information & passes it to STM. During STM, we may overlook precise details and may not fully encode it, which would result in failure to pass along the complete memory for proper storage in LTM
     • Cue Dependent Forgetting (State Dependent Learning: -the more similar the learning and recall environment the better. ex: same classroom ex: same caffeine amount. -CONSISTENCY
       • Interference: retroactive the OLD memory is messed up; proactive; the NEW memory is messed up
       • Repression/Suppression: involuntary response to something tragic, your mind blocks out disturbing things -SUPPRESSION (thought blocking) intentional blocking of memories
   • Tip of the Tongue (TOT) phenomenon: a confident feeling of knowing something while not being able to retrieve it at that moment
   • Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve: Forgetting happens right away
   • Schema/Memories
     • A schema is a mental concept that informs a person about what to expect from a variety of experiences and situations. Schemas are developed based on information provided by life experiences and are then stored in memory.
   • Eye Witness Testimony: everyone sees things in a different persepctive therefore eyewitness testimonies are unreliable
   • Hypnosis improves recall

5. Biology

   • Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A long-lasting increase in neural sensitivity; a biological mechanism for learning & memory
   • Flashbulb Memory (FBM): a vivid, detailed, & near-permanent memory of an emotionally significant event; memory resulting from a form of automatic encoding, storage & later retrieval
   • Memories are located in many parts of the brain
     • Amygdala: emotional memories
       • Basal ganglia/Cerebellum: creation & storage of basic responses
         • Hippocampal/Hippocampus & surrounding areas: LTM; as well as sequences of events
           • Thalamus: formation of new memories and working memories
             • Cerebral Cortex: encoding, storage & retrieval of LTM
   • Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): neurological disorder that includes memory loss which is caused by physical accidents