CA May 2018 Exam Prep

CA May 2018 Exam Prep

1. Models of Memory

   • Levels of Processing model
     • Information is moved from LTM to STM by encoding. The deeper the level of precessing is, the better information is retained Shallow: Structural processing (the visual qualities of something) Intermediate: Phonemic processing (Stimulation! Associating of another sense (sound) or other associations) Deep: Semantic processing (where semantics/meaning is associated)
     • Tyler et al.
     • Bradshaw and Anderson
   • Multi Store model
     • Atkinson and Shiffrin Sensory input -> Sensory memory -> STM -> LTM Information moves linearly through these stores. Information moves from STM to LTM by rehearsal.
     • Murdock
     • Sperling
       • ASK for clarification

2. Schema theory

   • Networks of categorised/organised information in one's memory. NOT different anatomical areas in the brain, but a mental representation. Information is stored in different categories (schemas)
   • Bartlett
   • Bransford and Johnson
   • Top Down processing
     • Going from broad to specific
   • Bottom Up processing
     • From specific to broad
   • Stereotypes
     • An example of schema processing based on a fixed mental representation of a group
   • Pattern regocnition
     • Matching info into existing schema
   • Effort after Meaning
     • The attempt to match unfamiliar ideas into existing frameworks

3. Principles

   • 1. Humans are processors of information 2. Mental processes/representations guide behaviour 3. cognitive processes can be studied scientifically 4. Cognitive processes are influenced by cultural and social factors

4. Decision-making

   • Closely linked to thinking Rational (controlled) Intuitive (automatic) Influenced by social pressure, attitude, emotion, goals, etc.
   • Thinking
     • A process of using information and doing something with it
   • System 1 and 2
     • Splits decision-making into two separate systems that do not work simultaneously. System 1: Intuitive decision, habits, automatic, survival based (evolution - response to danger), quick, effortless, easily subject to cognitive errors, judgements prone to be irrational. System 2: Very deliberate decision, rational, intentional, goal-oriented, slow, requires effort, analyses for/limits cognitive erros
   • Theory of Reasoned Action
     • Intentions guide behaviour but they do not guarantee action. People make their decision based on reasonable consideration of evidence. Can be influenced by the attitude of individual towards behaviour; and perceived social pressure.
     • Bagozzi
     • Jemmott and Jemmott
   • Montague et al.
   • Brehm

5. Cognitive erros

   • Errors in cognition, biases Confirmation Bias (Tendency to seek information that confirms previous beliefs, and ignoring information that contradicts) Illusory Correlation (Finding correlations where there are none) Selective Attention (Focusing only on part of stimulation when several are available)Optimism Bias (The tendency to believe nothing bad will happen to you)Cognitive dissonance (Clash between thought and attitude/behaviour/though causes discomfort. Individual will change one, seek to justify choice)
   • Brehm
   • Hamilton and Gifford

6. Reconstructive Memory

   • Memory is not an exact copy of events, but rather a reconstruction, which may be altered over time (storage, processing, retrieval)
   • Confabulation
     • Memory distortion
   • False memories
     • Recalling an event that never happened and believing it to be true

7. Flashbulb Memory

   • Event that is emotionally charged (shocking event) will create memory that is more detailed, more vivid, last longer. Emotion is located in the Amygdala, Memory is located in the hippocampus.
   • Brown and Kulik
   • Neisser and Harsch

8. Emotion

   • NOT a cognition A complex phenomena of feeling caused by physical or psychological change.
   • Theory of Appraisal
     • How emotion occurs (cognitive) Event -> Appraisal (thought, judgement) -> emotional response (physical response) Primary appraisal: identification of event, attaching meaning/significance to event Secondary Appraisal: Like primary + resources for coping taken into account. Re-appraisal: After emotional response, monitoring appraisal from first time.
     • Speisman
   • The Emotional Brain
     • How emotion occurs (biological) Long (considered) pathway: Stimuli -> sensory thalamus -> sensory cortex -> (hippocampus) -> amygdala -> emotional response. Short (Instinctual) pathway: Stimuli -> sensory thalamus -> amygdala -> emotional response
     • Ledoux

9. State Dependent Memory

   • Memory will be better recalled if recall happens when individual is in the same state as they were when initial storage took place Used to treat trauma (exposure therapy) and in crime-solving (taking witness back to crime scene)
   • Laird et al.