Mapa mental
Memory
Contenido del mapa
Memory
Duration in the STM
- 15 - 30 seconds
- Peterson and Peterson; 24 students tested over 8 trials. Participants on each trial are given a constonant syllable and three digit number (THN 312). Asked to recall after 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds. Counted backwards from number in the interval
- 3 secs; 90%. 9 secs; 20%. 18 secs; 2%. Shows that there is a very short duration if rehearsal is prevented
- I; Testing STM is artificial. J; Consonant syllables are not things that are remembered in everyday life. E; This shows that ecological validity as it cannot be generalised
- 3 secs; 90%. 9 secs; 20%. 18 secs; 2%. Shows that there is a very short duration if rehearsal is prevented
- Peterson and Peterson; 24 students tested over 8 trials. Participants on each trial are given a constonant syllable and three digit number (THN 312). Asked to recall after 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds. Counted backwards from number in the interval
- 15 - 30 seconds
Duration in the LTM
- 2 hours to a lifetime
- Bahrick et al; 400 people of ages 17-74. Memory of their classmates. Photo recognition test consisted off 50 photos, some from the participants yearbook.
- Free recall; 15 years - 60%, 48 years - 30%. Control; 15 years - 90%, 48 years - 70%.
- Bahrick et al; 400 people of ages 17-74. Memory of their classmates. Photo recognition test consisted off 50 photos, some from the participants yearbook.
- 2 hours to a lifetime
Coding in the STM and LTM
- Way information is changed so it can be stored in memory, enters via the senses, visual - acoustic - semantic
- Baddeley; used acoustically similar and semantically similar words. Difficulty in remembering acoustically in STM and difficulty remembering semantically in LTM
- I; STM may be not exclusively acoustic. J; Brandimote found that p's using visual images when given a visual task and that visual images are turned into verbal codes. E; However, as verbal rehearsal was prevented, p's used visual images
- I; LTM may be not be exclusively semantic. J; Frost found that long term recall was related to visual as well as semantic whereas other researchers found evidence of acoustic coding. E; This shows that coding in the LTM can change
- I; STM may be not exclusively acoustic. J; Brandimote found that p's using visual images when given a visual task and that visual images are turned into verbal codes. E; However, as verbal rehearsal was prevented, p's used visual images
- Baddeley; used acoustically similar and semantically similar words. Difficulty in remembering acoustically in STM and difficulty remembering semantically in LTM
- Way information is changed so it can be stored in memory, enters via the senses, visual - acoustic - semantic
Multi Store Model
- Sensory Register - place where info is held at each of the senses, capacity is very large, constantly receiving information
- Attention; first step in remembering something
- STM; used for immediate tasks, limited duration, rehearsal is largely verbal, displacement of original information if new info enters
- Maintenance Rehearsal; repetition to keep info in the STM so info will eventually pass to LTM.
- LTM; potentially unlimited capacity, some seem to forget some information (theory of forgetting)
- Retrieval; info going back to the STM from the LTM
- I; Lab studies on capacity, duration and coding support the existence of separate stores. J; Beardsley found that the prefrontal cortex is active during STM but the LTM and others found that the hippocampus is active when the LTM is. E; This shows that different areas of the brain are linked to the stores
- I; The MSM is too simple. J; Supporting research shows that the STM is divided into stores and that there is numerous forms of LTM. E; Therefore, the MSM is much more complex than explained
- I; Lab studies on capacity, duration and coding support the existence of separate stores. J; Beardsley found that the prefrontal cortex is active during STM but the LTM and others found that the hippocampus is active when the LTM is. E; This shows that different areas of the brain are linked to the stores
- Retrieval; info going back to the STM from the LTM
- LTM; potentially unlimited capacity, some seem to forget some information (theory of forgetting)
- Maintenance Rehearsal; repetition to keep info in the STM so info will eventually pass to LTM.
- STM; used for immediate tasks, limited duration, rehearsal is largely verbal, displacement of original information if new info enters
- Attention; first step in remembering something
- Sensory Register - place where info is held at each of the senses, capacity is very large, constantly receiving information
Working Memory Model
- Explanation of memory when working on a task - short term/immediate memory, slave systems are controlled by the central executive
- Central Executive; direct attention to specific tasks, data arrives from senses, has a limited capacity
- Phonological Loop; phonological store - holds words that are heard, articulatory process - words that are seen
- Visuo-spatial sketchpad; planning a spatial task, physical relationship between items, visual cache - info about visual items, inner scribe - arrangement of objects in the visual field
- Episodic Buffer; general store, extra storage system, limited capacity, info to LTM
- I; Evidence from brain damaged patient supports WMM. J; Shallice and Warrington studied KF whose ST forgetting of auditory info was much greater than that of visual stimuli. E; Shows his brain damage seemed to be restricted to phonological loop
- I; Central executive is too vague. J; Eslinger and Damasio studied EVR who had a tumour removed. He performed well on tests that required reasoning but had poor decision making. E; Suggests that CE doesn't explain everything
- I; Can be a number of problems with the evidence. J; Process of brain damage is traumatic so patients may change behaviour to worsen results on certain tasks. E; Also, some may have difficulty with paying attention and can result in them underperforming
- I; Central executive is too vague. J; Eslinger and Damasio studied EVR who had a tumour removed. He performed well on tests that required reasoning but had poor decision making. E; Suggests that CE doesn't explain everything
- I; Evidence from brain damaged patient supports WMM. J; Shallice and Warrington studied KF whose ST forgetting of auditory info was much greater than that of visual stimuli. E; Shows his brain damage seemed to be restricted to phonological loop
- Episodic Buffer; general store, extra storage system, limited capacity, info to LTM
- Visuo-spatial sketchpad; planning a spatial task, physical relationship between items, visual cache - info about visual items, inner scribe - arrangement of objects in the visual field
- Phonological Loop; phonological store - holds words that are heard, articulatory process - words that are seen
- Central Executive; direct attention to specific tasks, data arrives from senses, has a limited capacity
- Explanation of memory when working on a task - short term/immediate memory, slave systems are controlled by the central executive
Types of LTM
- Episodic Memory; individuals personal experiences e.g. first day at school, specific details, context and emotions
- Semantic Memory; knowing facts and knowledge that is shared with everyone e.g. capital cities, usually start as episodic memories until the personal link disappears
- Procedural Memory; how to do something e.g. tying shoelaces, acquired through repetition so that they are automatic actions
- I; Research shows that different areas of the brain are active when different kinds of LTM are. J; The hippocampus is active in episodic, temporal lobe in semantic and limbic system in procedural. E; Shows that brain areas affect LTM.
- I; There is evidence from brain damaged patients. J; The study for of amnesiacs is difficult as it is hard to be exact until the patient has died. E; However, damage to a specific area doesn't mean that it is responsible as it could be acting as a relay station
- I; Research shows that different areas of the brain are active when different kinds of LTM are. J; The hippocampus is active in episodic, temporal lobe in semantic and limbic system in procedural. E; Shows that brain areas affect LTM.
- Procedural Memory; how to do something e.g. tying shoelaces, acquired through repetition so that they are automatic actions
- Semantic Memory; knowing facts and knowledge that is shared with everyone e.g. capital cities, usually start as episodic memories until the personal link disappears
- Episodic Memory; individuals personal experiences e.g. first day at school, specific details, context and emotions
Interference
- Proactive interference - past learning interferes with current attempts of learning. Retroactive interference - current attempts of learning interferes with past learning
- Baddeley and Hitch; rugby players had to recall teams they played, if decay theory was true then all players would recall a similar percentage due to forgetting over time, however players who played more forgot more due to interference
- I; Research can be quite artificial. J; Most research is lab used and they often use artificial lists of words and nonsense syllables. E; Therefore, research lacks ecological validity as findings may not relate to everyday tasks
- I; Only explains some situations of forgetting. J; Interference effects don't occur very often and new and old memories need to be similar to have interference effects. E; Concluded that there is no doubt that interference plays a role but it is not 100% sure of what extent
- I; Evidence that some people are less affected by PI than others. J; Researchers gave p's 3 word lists and p's with low working memory spans showed greater PI when recalling 2nd and 3rd lists than those with higher memory spans. E; This shows individual differences
- I; Only explains some situations of forgetting. J; Interference effects don't occur very often and new and old memories need to be similar to have interference effects. E; Concluded that there is no doubt that interference plays a role but it is not 100% sure of what extent
- I; Research can be quite artificial. J; Most research is lab used and they often use artificial lists of words and nonsense syllables. E; Therefore, research lacks ecological validity as findings may not relate to everyday tasks
- Baddeley and Hitch; rugby players had to recall teams they played, if decay theory was true then all players would recall a similar percentage due to forgetting over time, however players who played more forgot more due to interference
- Proactive interference - past learning interferes with current attempts of learning. Retroactive interference - current attempts of learning interferes with past learning
Retrieval Failure
- never stored in the first place, memory trace has disappeared, available but not accessible
- Cues; things that serve as a reminder, they may or may not be meaningfully linked to the material
- Retrieval failure; occurs due to the absence of cues, memory may be available but not accessible
- Tulving and Pearlstone; 48 words belonging to 12 categories e.g. fruit - apple, free recall; 40%, cued recall; 60%. Shows high value of retrieval cues
- Encoding Specificity Principle; states that if a cue is to help us recall info that it has to be present at encoding and retrieval. Environmental context and emotional state can affect retrieval.
- Context Dependent Forgetting; scuba divers had to learn set of words on land or underwater, highest recall of words occurred when initial context was the same as recall environment, supports idea of context dependent forgetting
- State Dependent Forgetting; male p's were asked to remember list of words when either drunk or sober, recalled list of words after 24 hours, info learnt when drunk was more available when in the same state later, supports state dependent forgetting
- I; Application of this is to use it to improve recall when needing to. J; Can show that people are more likely to remember info if they are in the same context they were in when learning it. E; Supports that there are real world applications
- I; Retrieval cues don't always work. J; Info learnt is related to a lot more than just the cues as they may not help in complex process as the cues will be very simple. E: Therefore, context effects are largely eliminated when learning meaningful material
- I; Problems with retrieval failure. J; Encoding specificity principle is impossible to test because it is circular and an item that hasn't been encoded in the memory can't be tested. E; Therefore, if it isn't encoded it can't be tested meaning it can't be proved
- I; Retrieval cues don't always work. J; Info learnt is related to a lot more than just the cues as they may not help in complex process as the cues will be very simple. E: Therefore, context effects are largely eliminated when learning meaningful material
- I; Application of this is to use it to improve recall when needing to. J; Can show that people are more likely to remember info if they are in the same context they were in when learning it. E; Supports that there are real world applications
- State Dependent Forgetting; male p's were asked to remember list of words when either drunk or sober, recalled list of words after 24 hours, info learnt when drunk was more available when in the same state later, supports state dependent forgetting
- Context Dependent Forgetting; scuba divers had to learn set of words on land or underwater, highest recall of words occurred when initial context was the same as recall environment, supports idea of context dependent forgetting
- Encoding Specificity Principle; states that if a cue is to help us recall info that it has to be present at encoding and retrieval. Environmental context and emotional state can affect retrieval.
- Tulving and Pearlstone; 48 words belonging to 12 categories e.g. fruit - apple, free recall; 40%, cued recall; 60%. Shows high value of retrieval cues
- Retrieval failure; occurs due to the absence of cues, memory may be available but not accessible
- Cues; things that serve as a reminder, they may or may not be meaningfully linked to the material
- never stored in the first place, memory trace has disappeared, available but not accessible
Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)
- evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime with a view to identifying the person who committed the crime, 72% of convictions overturned by DNA testing involved EWT that wasn't accurate
- Loftus and Palmer; 45 students were shown 7 films of a car crash and were asked a critical question - how fast was the car travelling when it smashed/hit/contacted the other car? With the word 'smashed' estimated speed was higher than 'contacted'.
- Second experiment - Did you see the broken glass? With smashed they were more likely to say yes. There was no broken glass in the films
- Conformity Effect; p's in pairs where each one watched different video. 1 condition - encouraged to discuss the event before individually recalling. 71% who discussed were more likely to recall items said in discussion
- Repeat Interviewing; comments the interviewer makes can influence memories of person, interviewer may use some leading questions and this could alter what the person recalls
- I; Been considerable support for research on misleading information. J; Embedded in info of disneyland were info about bugs bunny and ariel who are not part of disney but they were still likely to say that they had shaken their hands. E; Shows misleading info can create false memories
- I; Loftus suggested that EWT can be inaccurate. J; Researchers found that witnesses to robbery gave very accurate reports of the crime 4 months after the event even though they had misleading info. E; This suggests misleading info may have less influence on EWT
- I; Individual difference may also be a factor in accuracy of EWT. J; Schacter found elderly people have difficulty remembering source of their info even if their memory for info itself is unimpaired. E; As a result; they become more prone to effect of misleading info when giving testimony
- I; Loftus suggested that EWT can be inaccurate. J; Researchers found that witnesses to robbery gave very accurate reports of the crime 4 months after the event even though they had misleading info. E; This suggests misleading info may have less influence on EWT
- I; Been considerable support for research on misleading information. J; Embedded in info of disneyland were info about bugs bunny and ariel who are not part of disney but they were still likely to say that they had shaken their hands. E; Shows misleading info can create false memories
- Repeat Interviewing; comments the interviewer makes can influence memories of person, interviewer may use some leading questions and this could alter what the person recalls
- Conformity Effect; p's in pairs where each one watched different video. 1 condition - encouraged to discuss the event before individually recalling. 71% who discussed were more likely to recall items said in discussion
- Second experiment - Did you see the broken glass? With smashed they were more likely to say yes. There was no broken glass in the films
- Loftus and Palmer; 45 students were shown 7 films of a car crash and were asked a critical question - how fast was the car travelling when it smashed/hit/contacted the other car? With the word 'smashed' estimated speed was higher than 'contacted'.
- evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime with a view to identifying the person who committed the crime, 72% of convictions overturned by DNA testing involved EWT that wasn't accurate
Anxiety
- Weapon Focus Effect; waiting room and heard an argument and saw men with pen covered in grease or handgun covered in blood. Pen condition - 49% and knife condition - 33%
- Christianson and Hubinette; 58 witnesses of bank robberies who were victims or bystanders. 75% recall was accurate. Shows anxiety doesn't always reduce accuracy
- Yerkes-Dodson Effect; observation that arousal has a negative effect on performance when low or high and moderate levels are more beneficial.
- I; Weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety. J; Pickel proposed that the reduced accuracy of identification could be due to surprise rather than anxiety. E; It showed that identification is most accurate in high threat conditions then high surprise conditions
- I; A strength of Christianson and Hubinette is that it was done in context of real life. J; Deffenbacher agreed with this but found that lab studies in general demonstrate that anxiety leads to reduced accuracy. E; This shows that real life studies are associated with an ever greater loss in accuracy
- I; There is no simple conclusion. J; Milne found that victims of violent crimes were more accurate in their recall of crime information than victims of non-violent crimes. E; This shows that there is no simple rule about the effect of anxiety on accuracy of EWT
- I; A strength of Christianson and Hubinette is that it was done in context of real life. J; Deffenbacher agreed with this but found that lab studies in general demonstrate that anxiety leads to reduced accuracy. E; This shows that real life studies are associated with an ever greater loss in accuracy
- I; Weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety. J; Pickel proposed that the reduced accuracy of identification could be due to surprise rather than anxiety. E; It showed that identification is most accurate in high threat conditions then high surprise conditions
- Yerkes-Dodson Effect; observation that arousal has a negative effect on performance when low or high and moderate levels are more beneficial.
- Christianson and Hubinette; 58 witnesses of bank robberies who were victims or bystanders. 75% recall was accurate. Shows anxiety doesn't always reduce accuracy
- Weapon Focus Effect; waiting room and heard an argument and saw men with pen covered in grease or handgun covered in blood. Pen condition - 49% and knife condition - 33%
Cognitive Interview
- a police technique used for interviewing witnesses to a crime, which encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime
- Standard Police Interview; focuses on interviewer instead of witness, interviewer does most of talking, use specific questions, predetermined and closed questions, could ask leading questions
- Mental reinstatement of context, report everything, change the order, change perspective
- I; There has been research into the effectiveness of the cognitive interview. J; 53 studies were found and discovered that on average an increase of 34% in amount of correct information generated in CI compared to standard interviewing. E; tested in a lab so it means it doesn't reflect real life and lacks ecological validity
- I; Effectiveness of CI could be due to individual elements rather than the whole things. J; Researchers interviewed students using different conditions of the CI and when using a combination of 'report everything' and 'mental reinstatement' their recall was significantly higher than in all other conditions. E; This is a strength as it suggests that at least 2 elements should be used to improve EWT
- I; Issue regarding quantity v quality. J; Kohnken found that there was an 81% increase of correct info bit also a 61% increase of incorrect info when comparing CI to Standard Police Interview. E; Suggests that police need to treat all info collected from CIs with caution as it doesn't guarantee accuracy
- I; Effectiveness of CI could be due to individual elements rather than the whole things. J; Researchers interviewed students using different conditions of the CI and when using a combination of 'report everything' and 'mental reinstatement' their recall was significantly higher than in all other conditions. E; This is a strength as it suggests that at least 2 elements should be used to improve EWT
- Standard Police Interview; focuses on interviewer instead of witness, interviewer does most of talking, use specific questions, predetermined and closed questions, could ask leading questions
- a police technique used for interviewing witnesses to a crime, which encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime
Capacity of the STM
- STM has a limited capacity of 7 +/- 2
- Jacobs used a digit span technique and found an average span for digits is 9.3 items and for letters 7.3 items. From this, Miller concluded that the magic number is 7
- I; Due to Cowen's study, the capacity of the STM may be more limited. J; From reviewing a variety of studies it was concluded that it could be limited to 4 chunks. E; This means that the lower end of Miller's range is more appropriate
- I; Capacity of STM may be different due to individual differences. J; He found that recall increases with age as 19 year olds remembered more than 8 year olds. E; Shows that this can be due to increase in brain capacity
- I; Due to Cowen's study, the capacity of the STM may be more limited. J; From reviewing a variety of studies it was concluded that it could be limited to 4 chunks. E; This means that the lower end of Miller's range is more appropriate
- Jacobs used a digit span technique and found an average span for digits is 9.3 items and for letters 7.3 items. From this, Miller concluded that the magic number is 7
- STM has a limited capacity of 7 +/- 2
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Información
- Descripción
- AS - Level (Paper 1) Psychology Mapa Mental sobre Memory, creado por Charlotte Summerly el 22/03/2016.
- Creado por
- Charlotte Summerly
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