Attachment

Attachment

1. The strange situation

   • Ainsworth
     • Children were classified into Securely attached (type B) Insecure –Avoidant (type A) Insecure – Resistant (type C)
     • Aim: Mary Ainsworth devised a technique called the Strange Situation (SS) in order to investigate how attachment types vary between children.
     • Procedure: The SS comprised of 8 episodes. Each lasting 3 miniutes, apart from the first which only lasted 30 secs. Every aspect of pts’ behaviour was observed & recorded. Particular attention was paid to reunion behaviours. The testing room was an unfamiliar enviroment – hence ‘Strange Situation’
       • Procedure: The 8 steps allowed the researchers to assess the following behaviours: Separation from the caregiver (Separation anxiety).Reunion with the caregiver (Reunion behaviour). Response to the stranger (stranger anxiety). If the child used the mother as a secure base to explore the new environment.
         • Procedure: Data was collected using video recordings and a one way mirror. 5 categories were recorded: A) Proximity- and contact seeking behaviours B) Contact maintaining behaviours C) Proximity – and interaction- resisting behaviours D) Contact- and interaction resisting behaviours E) Search behaviours. Every 15 seconds the category of behavior displayed and recorded on a intensity score of 1-7.
     • 4 types of behaviour: 1. The infants willingness to explore. 2.Stranger anxiety 3. Reunion anxiety 4. Separation anxiety
     • Method – She used a controlled observation She assessed 106 middle class American infants and their primary caregivers.

2. Animal studies

   • Practical – because animals breed faster and researchers are interested in seeing results across more than one generation of animals.
   • Imprinting: An innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother which takes place during a specific time in development (critical period) If it doesnt happen in this time it probably wont happen.
   • Harlows study
     • Procedure: wire mothers with different heads. One wire mother was wrapped with cloth. 8 infant monkeys were studies over a period of 165 days. for 4 monkeys the milk bottle was on the cloth mother for the other 4 it was on the plain wire one. During that time measurements were made for the amount of time each infant spent with the 2 different mothers. Observations were also made when the infant was frightened by a mechanical teddy bear.
     • Long lasting effects: Harlow continued the study as they grew up the consequences were motherless monkeys developed abnormally even with comfort, they fled when approached by other monkeys, they didnt show any normal mating behaviour and didnt cradle their own babies.
     • Evaluation: Ethics: the study created lasting emotional harm as the monkeys later found it difficult to form relationships with their peers.
     • Findings: All 8 monkeys spent more time with the cloth monkey whether it had the feeding bottle or not Monkeys with the bottle on the wire other fed then went back to the cloth mother. When frightened all monkeys hung to the cloth mother and when playing with new objects the monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth mother seemingly for reassurance.Shows infants develop an attachment for a person offering comfort over on that offers food.
     • Evaluation: Confounding variable: Criticisms have been made as the 2 stimuls objects vary in more than on beig cloth covered and the other not. The heads were different , acting as a confounding variable because its varied systematically with the independent variable (whether the mother was cloth covered or not) Study lacks internal validity as the monkey could have preferred the head.
     • Evaluation: Generalising animal studies to humans: Human behaviour is governed by conscious decisions. Schaffer and Emerson's support this as they found infants were not attached to the person hat fed them. Animal studies can be useful pointers in understanding human behaviour but we should seek confirmation by looking at research with humans.
   • Attachment-like behaviour is similar in a range of species and we can apply to human attachments.
   • Lorenz's study
     • Procedure: Took gosling eggs and divided them into 2 groups. 1 group was left with their natural mother the other eggs were in an incubator. When the incubator eggs hatched the first living thing they saw was Lorenz and soon started following him around.Lorenz marked the groups to distinguish them when they were were put together to test imprinting, both Lorenz and the natural mother were present.
     • Findings:The goslings dived themselves, one following the natural mother the other following Lorenz. Lorenz's brood show no recognition of their natural mother. Lorenz noted imprinting is restricted to a definite period of the young animals life, the critical period. If a young animal isnt exposed to a moving object during the critical period an animal will not be able to imprint. Suggests can imprint on a persistently present moving object seen within the first 2 days. This attachment binds a young animal to its care giver to create a special bond.
     • Long lasting effects:the process is irreversible and long lasting. Lorenz said a geese that imprinted on him used to sleep on his bed every night. He also noted that early imprinting had an effect on later mate preferences called sex imprinting. animals will choose to mate with the same kind of object upon which they were imprinted.
     • Evaluation: research supporting: Guiton exposed leghorn chicks to yellow rubber gloves which fed them during their first few weeks. The chicks imprinted on the gloves. Shows animals arent born with a predisposition to imprint on a specific type of object but on any moving thing present in the critical period. Guiton also found the male chicks tried to mate with the gloves showing imprinting is linked to later reproductive behaviour.
     • Evaluation: Criticisms of imprinting: It was thought that the original concept of the object imprinted was stamped irreversibly on the nervous system. However Guiton found he could reverse imprinting in the chickens who had initially tried to mate with the rubber glove, found after time spent with their own species they were able to engage in normal sexual behaviour.

3. Developments of attachments:

   • 0-2 months – pre attachment phase Preference for people over objects, but no discrimination between people.
   • 3-7 months – indiscriminate attachment phase Apparent preference for familiar people (e.g. smiling more at some people).
   • 7 months – discriminate attachment phase True emotional attachment. Multiple attachments by about 9 months
   • 9 months- Multiple Attachment phase - Infants form strong emotional bonds with others, e.g. grandparents.
   • Schaffer & Emerson
     • It’s a Longitudinal study using a variety of methods. Conducted in Glasgow. 2 behaviors measured were separation protest and stranger anxiety
     • Evaluation: unreliable results: The data collected may be unreliable because it was based on mothers reports of their infants. Some mothers might have been less sensitive and therefore were less likely to report them. this would create systematic bias and would challenge the validity of the study.
     • Evaluation: Mundane realism is when an activity/study is similar to an activity/process one would complete in day to day life. It was achieved because the study was conducted under everyday conditions so has high validity.
     • Findings: Most infants started to show separation protest when parted from their attachment figure at between 6-8months Strongly attached infants had mothers who responded to their needs quickly and who provided more opportunities for interaction At 18 months 87% had at least two attachments, with 31% having 5 or more. 39% of infants’ prime attachment was not to the main career.

4. Bowlby’s monotropic theory

   • Continuity hypothesis:The view of relationships you develop in early childhood continues into adulthood.
   • Through the monotropic attachment, the infant would form an Internal working model. This is a special mental schema for relationships. All the child’s future adult relationships will be based on this.
   • Babies have to form the attachment with their caregiver during a Critical period. This is between birth and 2½ years old. Bowlby said that if this didn’t happen, the child would be damaged for life – socially, emotionally, intellectually, and physically .
   • Monotropy is a special intense attachment. Bowlby believed that infants form 1 attachment with their mother. If the mother isn’t available, the infant could bond with another ever-present, adult, mother-substitute.
   • The evolutionary perspective The main concept of this theory is that attachments serve an adaptive purpose to survive.
   • Attachments are Adaptive: They give our species an advantage making us more likely to survive because if an infant has an attachment to a caregiver, they are kept safe, given food, and kept warm.
   • Babies have Social releasers, which ‘unlock’ the innate tendency of adults to care for them. These Social releasers are both: Physical – the typical ‘baby face’ features and body proportions and Behavioural – e.g. crying, cooing
   • Evaluation: Continuity hypothesis: Bowbly states one outcome of attachment is subsequent relationships. A study followed pt's from infancy to late adolescence and found continuity between early attachment and later emotional/ social behaviour. Infants classified as securely attached had the highest rates for social competence later in childhood, were less isolated and more popular and more empathetic. Supporting the continuity hypothesis as theres a link between early and later attachments.
   • Evaluation: A sensitive period rather than a critical one: Studies have been carried out on children who fail to form attachments during the critical period between 3-6 months. According to Bowbly its not possible to form attachments past this point.Studies have shown this is true to an extent. Its less likely that attachments will occur but its not impossible.

5. Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivaton

   • Hypothesis
     • Long term consequences of deprivation: Emotional maladjustment or mental health problems such as depression.
     • Value of maternal care: Before Bowlby it was thought as long as a child is fed, kept warm and safe they were in good care. Bowbly said infants need warm, intimate and continuous relationship they would maintain good mental health.
     • Critical period: If a young child is denied care because or frequent or prolonged separation they may become emotionally disturbed. This will only happen if it happen in the critical period (before 2 and a half) If there was no substitute available there was a continuing risk up to the age of 5.
     • 3. The relationship doesn’t have to be with the child's mother. A maternal substitute is sufficient, but the child must develop a primary relationship with one caregiver.
     • 2. The relationship between a child and mother/maternal figure must develop before the age of 2 and a half years. Otherwise theres the risk of emotional disturbance. Disruption to the relationship up to 5 years old can also be harmful.
     • 1. There must be a continuous relationship between a child and mother/maternal figure. Discontinuous relationships are unstable and disrupt the development of a stable relationship.
     • Evidence: long term effects of MD. A study found that women who had experienced separation (deprivation) from their mothers for more than 1 year were more likely to suffer from anxiety or depression. This was shown by 25% of those who had been separated suffering from depression or anxiety disorders compared to 15% who had not experienced separation. Furthermore, the mental health problems were greater in women who had been separated before age 6. Therefore supporting Bowlby’s MDH and the importance of the critical period for influencing future emotional adjustment.
     • Evaluation: Individual differences: Not all children respond to separations in the same way. Studies found that securely attached children may cope better than insecurely attached children because they can become extremely distressed. Bowlby’s study of 60 children under age 4 years suffering from TB, and suffering from prolonged early separations while in hospital. In adolescence 63% were more maladjusted than ‘normal’ children, but showed no significant signs of differences in their intellectual development. Bowlby concluded that these differences appeared to be linked to their early attachment types, with securely attached infants being more resilient to the separation. Therefore this suggests that individual differences need to be taken into account when considering how a child will respond to maternal deprivation long term.
   • 44 Juvenile theives
     • Findings: Bowbly found that those diagnosed as affectionless thieves had experienced early and frequent separations from their mother. 86% experienced frequent separations compared to 17% of the other thieves. Almost none of the control group pt's experienced early separation whereas 39% of all thieves had.The early separations often consisted of repeated stays at foster homes or hospitals, when the children were scarcely visited by their families. Shows early separation is linked to affectionless psychopathy.
     • Procedure: Bowlby analysed case histories of his patients in the child Guidance clinic in London where he worked. All children there were emotionally maladjusted he studied 88 children 44 of which had been caught stealing, the other half were a control group. Bowbly suggested some children were affectionless psychopaths lacking a sense of responsibility.

6. Institutional care

   • Evaluation: Value of longitudinal studies: They're time consuming and take a lot of planning as the children have to be studied for a number of years. Without these studies we would conclude that there are major effects of institutional care, now we know such affects disappear with time and high quality care.
   • Evaluation: Deprivation is only 1 factor: The Romanian orphans were faced with more than emotional deprivation. The physical conditions were bad and impacted health. The lack of cognitive stimulation would also affect their development. More likely that damage occured when there was multiple risk factors. For many institutionalised children, poor care in infancy is followed by poor subsequent care, such as living in poverty etc.
   • Emotional privation: Children who are raised in institutions often display signs of emotional privation. They have received a good standard of physical care, but have not formed an attachment with a caregiver.
     • Institutional care: Due to certain early experiences in childhood, e.g. family breakdown or an inability of a caregiver to look after their child, some children end up spending time in institutional care (children’s homes or orphanages).
   • Rutter and Sonuga-Barke (ERA English and Romanian Adoptees).
     • Procedure: 165 Romanian children spent their early lives in institutions and have suffered from institutionalisation. Of that group 111 were adopted before the age of 2 and a further 54 by the age of 4. The adoptees were tested at regular intervals (ages 4, 6, 11 and 15) to assess there physical, cognitive and social development. Info was gathered from teachers and parents. Their progress was compared to a control group of 52 British children who were adopted in the UK before the age of 6 months.
     • Findings: At the time of adoption the Romanian orphans lagged behind their British counterparts in all aspects. They were smaller, weighed less and were classes as mentally retarded. By the age of 4 some children had caught up with their British pair. This was the case for most adopted before 6 months. Many orphans adopted after 6 months showed disinhibited attachments and had problems with peer relationships. Long term consequences may not be severe if a child is in care but if the infant doesnt make an attachment then consequences could be severe.

7. Cultural variations

   • Individualist cultures: Cultures focus on independence and achieving the best for you. Encourage assertiveness emotional independence and privacy. E.g. Germany. Parents set boundaries and give freedom with in them and intervening when necessary. Leaves children less agreeable and more extravert.
   • Takahashi
     • Procedure: 60 middle-class, Japanese infants, aged 1 year, both boys & girls, and their mothers All were raised at home. The infants and mothers were observed in the Strange Situation
     • Findings: 68% were classified as securely attached. There were no infants classified as avoidant-insecure. 32% were classified as resistant- insecure. Japanese infants were much more disturbed the ‘infant alone’ step was stopped for 90% of the infants because they became so distressed. It is suggested that if the infant alone step had not been stopped a higher % of infants would have been classified as securely attached, possibly as high as 80%.
     • Cultural background
       • The lack of avoidant behaviour in the sample could be explained in cultural terms. Japanese children are taught that such behaviour is impolite and would be actively discouraged from displaying such behaviour.
         • Differences could be because Japanese infants experience much less separation and generally sleep in the same bed as their parents until the age of 2, are carried around on their mothers backs and often bathe with their parents.
           • The Strange Situation doesn’t mean the same thing for the Japanese. The Strange Situation was only intended to cause mild distress, but was much more stressful for the Japanese infants. This means that the behaviours observed were reactions to extreme stress, which wasn’t the original aim.
     • Evaluation: Ethics: The infants became very distressed at the left alone stage. 90%. Therefore other people want to take part.
   • Collectivist cultures: Focus on relationships with others and doing whats best for everyone. They encourage obedience, duty and family integrity. E.g. Japan. Parents promote values such as helpfulness and working together. Children grow up to be more agreeable and less extravert.
   • Grossman & Grossman
     • German infants tended to be classified as insecure-avoidant rather than securely attached.
     • Cultural background: This may be due to different child-rearing practices and German cultural norms, as parents and children generally keep a greater interpersonal distance and infants in the Strange Situation do not engage in proximity-seeking behaviours and therefore appear to be insecurely attached.
     • Therefore, in the strange situation German infants may appear to be avoidant. So its not a valid representation of their attachment type.
   • Van IZjendoorn and Kroonenburg
     • The ‘Strange Situation’ has been done in many countries, so they summarised 32 studies in a ‘meta-analysis’. They simply put the findings of all the studies in a table
       • Secure is most common. Japan 5% insecure avoidant, Germany 35% insecure avoidant. Germany was 8% insecure resistant and japan was 27%.Proves theres cultural differences.
     • Evaluation: Cross cultural analysis includes 32 studies: Allows comparisons to be made for attachment types.
     • Evaluation: Issues with generalisability: More studies in america compared to one study in china and GB. Not repeatable.

8. Infant interactions

   • An enduring, two way (reciprocal), emotional bond to a specific other person, normally between a parent and a child.
   • Motherese/ caregiverese: the distinctive language patterns demonstrated by mothers conversing with young children. Its usually slow, high-pitched, repetitive, varied in intonation and comprises short simple sentences. One of the most distinctive characteristics of motherese is the ‘singy-songy’ nature of the communication.
   • Infants can’t talk, but communication between career and infant can happen in many different ways: Bodily contact, Mimicking, Interactional synchrony, Reciprocity and Caregiverese
   • Interactions between a carer and an infant serve an important function of developing and maintaining an attachment.
   • Attachment bonds are characterised by an infant’s desire to keep close proximity to a particular individual and an expression of distress when separated from that person.
   • Meltzoff and Moore
     • Controlled by observation. 4 stimulus were used (3 faces and a hand gesture). To record observations they watched videos of the infants behaviour in real time, slow-mo and frame by frame. The video was judged by independent observers who had no knowledge of what the infant had just seen. They used behavioural categories to record observations.
     • Evaluation: Failure to replicate: Others failed to replicate the findings, although M&M counter acted that the research was less carefully controlled.
   • Evaluation: Individual differences: An important feature of interactional synchrony is theres variation between infants. Isabella (1989) found that strongly attached infants- caregiver showed greater synchrony. Heinman (1989) found infants that show a lot of imitation from birth have been found to have a better quality relationship but its not clear if this is a direct link.
   • Evaluation: Is the behaviour intentional: Another study was done to see how infants respond to inanimate objects. Psychologists observed infants interacting with 2 objects, one stimulating tongue movement the other mouth opening and closing. Infants aged 5-12 weeks made little response. Concluded that infants dont imitate anything, its a specific social response to other humans.

9. Learning Theories

   • Unconditioned response (UCR) – the natural response to the UCS.
   • Conditioned stimulus (CS) – A stimulus that you have learnt to respond to, via association (was previously the NS).
   • Operant conditioning: Learning by reinforcement and punishment. Behaviour is influenced by the consequences of our actions Positive Reinforcement - Behaviour is rewarded and thus strengthened - The behaviour is repeated. Negative Reinforcement - Behaviour switches off something unpleasant - The behaviour isnt repeated
   • Evaluation: Drive reduction is ignored today: Theres a limited number of behaviours people do things to increase and decrease comfort. It also doesnt explain how secondary reinforcers work as they dont directly reduce discomfort yet they are reinforcing.
   • Behaviourist approach believe we are born as a blank slate and all behaviour is learnt. Behaviour can be learnt 3 ways: 1. Classical Conditioning – learning via association 2. Operant conditioning – learning via consequences of your actions (i.e. reinforcement, punishment). 3. Social Learning – learning via observation and imitation.
   • Neutral stimulus (NS) – A stimulus that evokes no natural response.
   • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - something that illicit a natural response, it is innate.
   • Conditioned response (CR) – The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.
   • Evaluation: it has some explanation: It doesnt supply a complete explanation but has some value. Infants do learn through association and reinforcement, but food may not be the main reinforcer. It may be the attention and responses given from the the caregiver are important rewards and assist in the formation of attachment. This wasnt considered in the learning theory.

10. Influence of early attachment

    • The role of the Internal Working Model (IWM): An IWM is a mental model of the world which enables individuals to predict and control their environment. In the case of attachments the IWM refers to a person’s expectations about relationships. The infant learns what relationships based on how parents behave towards each other and the infant themselves. It is ‘operable’ as it is used to predict the behaviour of partners in relationships in the future.
    • Poor parenting: Halrlows monkeys lack of care as a child makes it difficult to parent in later life lack of attachment with a parent will cause a lack of attachment with their child.
    • Childhood friendships: individuals classified as securely attached in infancy have the highest rate of social competence in later childhood, less isolated, more popular and more empathetic.
    • Romantic relationships: A link between early attachment and later relationships. securely attached people have longer lasting relationships.
    • Mental health: lack of attachment during critical period would mean a child lacks in their IWM. Children who arent attached dont have a specific attachment figure stopping them relating with others.
    • Hazan and Shaver love quiz
      • Evaluation: socially sensitive people could think their relationship is their parents fault.
      • Evaluation: Self report studies- people could lie, so no best fit.
      • Questions dont apply to everyone e.g. people with split up parents.

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