Memory

Memory

1. Duration

   • STM
     • Peterson and Peterson: 24 students where given a consonant syllable to remember, there there was an interval that changed (8, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 seconds) where they had to count backwards.
       • Findings: 90% of them could remember after 3 seconds, 20% after 9 seconds and 2% after 18 seconds. Suggesting that STM has a duration of less then 18 seconds if verbal rehearsal is not given.
   • LTM
     • It is thought that it lasts of almost a life time (if it lasted a life time then we would have remembered thing before the age of 2)
       • Bahrick et al - 392 graduates were shown photographs from their high-school year book. Recognition group: They had photos and had to match it to names they where given. Recall group: they had just had the photos without the names.
         • Recognition test: 90% correct after 14 years, 80% accurate after 25, 75% accurate 34 years, 60% accurate 47 years. Recall test: 60% accurate after 7 years and 20% after 47 years.
         • people remember certain types of information all their life and that recognition are better tests.

2. Capacity

   • STM
     • STM has a limited capacity
       • Miller did research to identify your immediate digit span. This was done by remembering random digits in the correct order, this usually start at 3 numbers before expanding to more digits until it is impossible to remember them all in order.
         • Findings most people have a digit span of plus or minus 2 form 7
   • LTM
     • It is not thought to be a limit to the capacity as we are always leaning.

3. Multi-store model

   • Atkinson and Shriffrin

4. Working memory model

   • Baddeley and Hitch

5. Eyewitness testimonys

   • Stages of memory in eyewitness testimony
     • Actual Events
       • Stage 1 - Acquisition (information that person perceives)
         • Stage 2 - Storage
           • Stage 3 - Retrieval
             • Leading questions + 'best guesses' in line-up identification
           • Misleading information + Source misattribution errors
         • Poor viewing + Focus on weapons Effects of expectations
   • Role of anxiey
     • Weapon focus
       • Lofus study was in a lab were the participants where in two group with different situations. One group are in the waiting room and heard an argument in the lab and then a person emerged from the room with a pen and grease on them, the second group heard a heated argument where there was sounds of breaking glass and chairs been thrown and then a person can out with a paper knife covered in blood.
   • Role of schemas
     • Brewer et al - had participants in a waiting room for 35 seconds and then when they where called in and asked what was in the waiting room. it was found people remembers more of the office based objects then the imcompatible objects (skull)
   • Age of the eye witness
     • A young child (9) would pick someone form a line up even if that someone was not actual at the crime (they would look similar to the perpetrator) for they feel that they have to choose one of them.
   • Use of leading questions (what is the alternative way)
     • Loftus and Palmer
       • Experiment 1: 45 student participants watched a video clip then they were split into 5 groups. They were then asked the same question but with some slight differences.
         • The question 'About how fast were the cars going when they each other' in the blank space there would be the independent variable. The results are showen
       • Experiment 2: 150 students where shown a video and then put into 3 groups, one group was not asked any question, second group where asked 'how fast the cars where going when they smashed into each other' and the last group where asked 'how fast were the cars going when they hit each other'. (there was no broken glass)
         • Then a week later they where asked if they had seen any broken glass

6. Encoding

   • LTM
     • Baddeley (1966) - there where 4 groups that had a list of ten words. The different categorese are: acoustically similar words, acoustically dissimilar words, semantically similar words and semantically dissimilar words. They did another test for 20 minuets then they had to recall the words in order.
       • Recall was worse semantically similar words then for semantically dissimilar words this is the same with the other two categores.
     • There are different was to recall: Acoustic encoding (sound like police sirens), Visual encoding (pictures like peoples faces.
   • STM
     • Conrad - found that people made mistakes when recalling similar sounding word, when they had to recall immediate.

7. Types of memory

   • Sensory memory
   • Short-term memory
   • Long-term memory

8. Strategies for improving memory

   • Visual imagery
     • mindmaps
     • method of loci
     • Colouring items
   • Verbal mnemonics
     • Cues
     • Chunking
     • organising notes
     • Acronyms

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