Memory

Memory

1. MSM

   • Atkinson and Shiffrin
   • Stores
     • Sensory Register
       • Duration: 0.5 sec
       • Capacity: unlimited
       • Coding: sense-specific
       • Echoic and Iconic
     • STM
       • Capacity: 7 +/-2
         • Miller
           • Recalled number lists of increasing length
       • Duration: 15-30sec
         • Peterson
           • Recalled trigrams after different time delays. Recall almost zero after 30sec
       • Coding: primarily acoustic
         • Baddeley
           • Recalled lists of words: semantically similar and dissimilar, acoustically similar and dissimilar. A: after short time interval - acoustically similar harder B: after longer time interval - semantically similar harder
     • LTM
       • Duration: unlimited
         • Bahrick
           • A: recalled names of class-members B: matched names with pictures with better results
       • Capacity: unlimited / unknown
       • Coding: primarily semantic
         • Baddeley
       • LTM
   • AO3
     • S: supporting research - Bahrick
     • S: supporting research - Baddeley
     • W: evidence more complex - KF recalled visual not verbal info

2. Types of LTM

   • 3 types
     • Episodic
       • Time/location stamped
       • Memories of personal experiences
       • Usually emotionally significant
       • Hippocampus
     • Semantic
       • Memories of information
       • Impersonal and not stamped
       • Temporal lobe
     • Procedural
       • Memories of muscle movements / actions
       • Not conscious; automatic
       • Acquired through practise
       • Cerebellum
   • 2 types
     • Declarative / explicit
       • Consciously recalled
     • Non-declarative / implicit
       • Unconsciously recalled
   • AO3
     • S: Supporting cases - Clive Wearing could play piano (procedural) but not recall semantic and episodic info
     • S: Neuroimaging - shows different brain regions active doing tasks that should use different stores
     • W: Some suggest there are only 2 stores - Clive Wearing had declarative damaged but non-declarative unaffected
   • Tulving

3. WMM

   • Stores
     • Phonological loop
       • Speech-based information - acoustic coding
       • Articulatory process
         • Linked to speech production
       • Phonological store
         • Linked to speech perception
     • Visuo-spatial sketchpad
       • Visual and spatial information - visual coding
       • Visual Cache
         • Visual / colour-based information
       • Inner scribe
         • Spatial and movement information
     • Central executive
       • Controls flow of info in other stores
       • Linked to Frontal Cortex and consciousness
     • Episodic buffer
       • Added in 2000
       • Coordinates relation of other stores to STM
   • Baddeley and Hitch 1974
   • AO3
     • S: Supporting cases - after brain injury KF could recall visual not verbal info
     • S: Neuroimaging - shows separate brain regions active doing tasks that should use separate stores
     • W: Central executive hard to falsify - difficult to know whether frontal cortex in control or if CE even exists - too many assumptions

4. Forgetting

   • Intereference Theory
     • Proactive Intereference
       • Old memories affect retrieval of new memories
       • Postman
         • A: learned list 1 & 2 and recalled 2 B: learned and recalled just list 2 - better recall. A experienced proactive interference.
     • Retroactive Intereference
       • New memories affect retrieval of old memories
     • Similar old and new memories interfere and cause confusion
     • AO3
       • S: Supporting research - Postman
       • S: Real-life examples -Proactive interference of phone numbers
       • W: Lack ecological validity - word lists unrealistic
   • Retrieval Failure
     • Encoding Specificity Principle: Memories only accessible using cues present at coding
     • Context-dependent retrieval
       • Cue is the context whilst learning
       • Godden and Baddeley
         • A: learnt land recalled land B: learned land recalled water C: learned water recalled land D: learned water recalled water. Performance best when context the same learning and recalling
     • State-dependent retrieval
       • Cue is the state of mind whilst learning
       • Carter and Cassaday
         • A: learnt AH recalled AH B: learned AH recalled placebo C: learned placebo recalled AH D: learned placebo recalled placebo. Performance best when state of mind same learning and recalling
     • AO3
       • S: Supporting research - Godden and Baddeley
       • W: Lack ecological validity - word lists unrealistic
       • W: Can't be falsified - assume correct recall is purely dependent on whether cue present

5. EWT

   • Loftus and Palmer
     • Asked students to guess speed of car crash from video. Verb in question changed. "Smashed" group gave highest speed. "Contacted" group gave lowest speed.
     • Leading questions
     • AO3
       • S: practical applications - people may be wrongly charged for speeding
       • S: controlled and replicable
       • W: less ecologically valid - less anxiety watching video
       • W: sample less generaliseable
   • Anxiety
     • Negative
       • Johnson and Scott
         • A: Actor comes out of relaxed discussion holding pen B: Actor comes out of hostile argument carrying knife covered in blood. A ID easier because B focused on weapon
       • "Weapon focus effect"
     • Positive
       • Increased arousal (e.g. adrenaline and heart rate) so witnesses more observant
       • Yuille and Cutshall
         • Assessed stress and recall of witnesses 4-5 months after real shooting with interview. Increased stress correlated with better recall.
     • Yerkes-Godson's law: medium arousal for optimum recall
     • AO3:
       • S: practical application - Johnson and Scott shows weapons affect EWT
       • S: Yuille and Cutshall is a natural experiment
       • W: weapon affect assumed - Pickel replicated with rubber chicken etc. and found unusual objects just as affective
   • CI
     • Techniques
       • RE
         • Report Everything to trigger as many retrieval pathways as possible
       • RC
         • Reinstate Context to allow for context/state-dependent retrieval - increases cues
         • Mentally recreate context
       • RO
         • Reverse Order to open new retrieval pathways and prevent dishonesty
         • Can also involve starting from middle of event
       • CP
         • Change Perspective to open new retrieval pathways and prevent dishonesty
     • Fisher and Geiselman 1992
     • AO3
       • S: supporting research - Kohnken 1992 meta-analysis showed 81% more correct info
       • W: false positives - Kohnken 1992 meta-analysis also showed 61% more incorrect info
       • W: time consuming + police training required
   • Post-event discussion
     • Witnesses discuss event afterwards, contaminating recall
     • Gabbert (2003)