PSY391 Revision Notes

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Session 1: Understanding Personality

Personality is a facet within a broader set of concepts referred to as individual differences

(E.g., General / emotional intelligence, coping styles, self-efficacy, etc.)

Personality has had varying approaches over the history of its study

Variations in behaviours, cognitions, and actions

Consequently, variations in outcomes associated with these elements

Broad Approaches to Personality

Nomothetic vs Idiographic approaches

Situational vs Dispositional approaches

Psychodynamic

Social-Cognitive

Humanistic

Trait

Nomothetic Approach

There are commonalities in the way we can describe individuals due to a set of common descriptive terms.

Idiographic Approach

There is no commonality in the manner we can describe individuals.

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Situational Approach

Individual's pattern of behaviours and cognitions are variable depending on situational or environmental cues.

Dispositional Approach

On average, an individual's pattern of behaviours and cognitions are relatively invariant across situations.

Psychodynamic Approach

Key theorists: Freud and Jung

Personality stems from largely unconscious facets of the individual, and shaped from client history

Has hugely permeated popular culture’s perception of psychology

Psychodynamic Approach

Limitations:

Empirically weak

Subjective basis for theory development

Sexism

Overemphasis on sexual facets driving personality

Little detail on predicting behaviour

Social-Cognitive Approach

Key theorists: Bandura and Mischel

What makes a person unique?

- Their skills and competencies

- Their beliefs and subsequent expectancies

(What things are like, what they should be like, and what they would like them to be in the future)

- Perceived self-efficacy

Reciprocal determinism

- Person changes their environment, environment changes the person

Takes an idiographic approach to personality via description

Social-Cognitive Approach

Limitations

Places an emphasis on the rational actor

Infers that individuals are always aware of their sense of self, goals, competencies, etc.

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Humanistic Approach

Key theorists: Rogers and Maslow

‘Person-centred’ approach

- True self vs. Ideal self

- Conditional positive regard

Behaviours indicative of personality reflective of actualising tendencies of individuals

Not empirically driven – more concerned with individual’s experience and how they see the world to indicate personality

Humanistic Approach

Limitations

Rather difficult to test in terms of hypotheses

- How can we judge whether someone’s behaviour is reflective of their actualising tendencies?

Idealism vs. realism

Trait

Leading approach in psychology research regarding personality at the moment

Looks at individual difference facets of personality difference between people

These facets are

- Uniquely you, and

- Stable over time

Development of the Trait Approaches

Typologies versus Traits

Typologies: Individuals are classified into a category that describes their personality

- Am I an outgoing or reclusive individual?

Traits: Individuals are scored on a continuum to express how closely they match one extreme versus the other

- How outgoing am I?

Examples of Typological Approaches

Body Types

- Mesomorph

- Ectomorph

- Endomorph

Type A/B

Blood Type

Phrenology

- Bumps, valleys, ridges of the skull are indicative of personality

Astrological signs

- Star signs and birthdays

Examples of Typological Approaches

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

- Participants have a four letter coded typology, based on their summed preferences for the following four domains

> Extraversion vs. Introversion

> Sensing vs. Intuition

> Thinking vs. Feeling

> Judging vs. Perceiving

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Flaws of Typological Approaches

Limits detail of explanation

- Consider from a data perspective of nominal vs. ordinal/scale

Assumes individuals that may vary quite notably fit within the same category

Limits capacity to predict behaviour

Trait Approaches

Cattell’s 16F Model

Eysenck’s Gigantic Three

McCrae and Costa’s Big Five

Supplementary approaches

- E.g., Dark Triad

Cattell's Lexical Approach

(Allport) Descriptive terms used to understand how people may differ, or what their characteristics are, must exist in our language.

Dictionary entries suggested approximately 18000 such words existed.

Overlap in listed trait words lead to reduction in listing.

(Cattell) Applied a factor reduction approach --> condense this list of traits --> represented by 16 underlying factors.

Cattell's Lexical Approach

Factor analysis --> condense common items reflective of an underlying factor.

Allowed underlying personality factors to be correlated with one another.

Presumed to be more ecologically valid reflection of personality model structure.

Eysenck's Gigantic Three

Neuroticism

Extraversion

Psychoticism

- ↑ Aggression, poor impulse control, lack of empathy for others

- Misnamed when considering criteria for psychosis (Lilienfeld et. al, 2015)

Personality differences attributable to physiological variation

Tellegen's Big Three

Variation on Eysenck’s model that is more commonly represented in contemporary research

Positive Emotionality (similar to Extraversion)

Negative Emotionality (similar to Neuroticism)

Constraint (similar to Psychoticism)

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The Five Factor Model or Big Five

Key authors: McCrae and Costa; Goldberg

Variation on Eysenck’s model that is more commonly represented in contemporary research

- Data driven examination only

Found evidence across measurement methods for five general factors

- Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness

- Easy to remember with CANOE or OCEAN acronym!

Neuroticism

High scores

- Emotional, tendency to worry, feelings of insecurity and/or inadequacy

Low scores

- Relatively calm, less emotional, hardier, more self-satisfied

Costa and McCrae (1992): psychopathology --> higher scores on N, provides clues -> depressive or anxious facets are more relevant

Extraversion

High scores

- More talkative and sociable, more oriented towards interaction with people, more fun loving, more affectionate

Low scores

- More reserved, aloof, quieter, less likely to be exuberant, more likely to prefer time to themselves

Costa & McCrae (1992) --> implications for clinical intervention in the case of psychopathology and extraversion

Openness to Experience

Note link to Rogers’ humanistic approach to personality

High scores

- More likely to be creative or original, more imaginative, curious, and have broader interests

Low scores

- More likely to be down-to-earth, more conventional, less interest in artistic endeavours, less likely to be analytical

Costa and McCrae (1992) --> Differences in defences presented in psychopathology: Higher O = more intellectual, lower O = suppression

Conscientiousness

High scores

- More reliable, neater, more ambitious, greater self-discipline and harder-working

Low scores

- Lazier, more negligent and careless, more hedonistic, less reliable

Costa and McCrae (1992) --> Interesting links between high/low scores and obsessive / antisocial disorders, respectively

Agreeableness

High Scores

- Good natured, more likely to be helpful, more forgiving towards others, more straightforward, more trusting

Low Scores

- More cynical, less cooperative, rude, more irritable, more suspicious, more likely to be manipulative

Costa and McCrae (1992) --> Implication for level of rapport between practitioner and client

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Cross-cultural Validity of the Big Five

Big Five / FFM have demonstrated excellent cross-cultural validity

- Given language variations, this is quite a feat!

Some interesting deviations --> Regarding the personality domains and the items used to test these claims (Ashton & Lee, 2007)

HEXACO

Ashton & Lee’s (2007; 2009) --> Looked again at the lexical hypothesis underlying trait models such as the Big Five / FFM

Note contrast between the claims of cross-cultural validity of Costa & McCrae versus the reasoning of Ashton & Lee (2007, p. 151):

“To obtain such evidence, it would be necessary to use variable sets that are indigenous to the cultures in question (rather than imported from the culture of the model’s developers) and representative of the personality domain (rather than selected as markers of a specified set of factor axes).”

Stability of Traits Over Time

Traits change over the lifespan, but mostly in early life (Specht et al., 2014)

Personality traits appear to stabilise in early adulthood

Over lifespan, some changes in traits are common

- Conscientiousness increases in later adulthood, neuroticism decreases

Influences on stability appear to be both genetic and environmental (Bleidorn, 2015)

- In young adulthood, transition to work role a key environmental signal for stabilisation, as is

- Completion of a course of study (e.g., graduating from high school)

- First long-term relationship

Stability of Traits Over Time

Stability appears to be greatest at around age 50, with instability more likely on either side of this age (Specht et al., 2014)

- As life experiences accumulate --> Personality change tends towards stability, decreasing the impact of genetic influences on stability, although this was a small effect after controlling for age

Example of environmental influence: Physical activity and exercise a buffer against personality instability in older adulthood (Stephan, Sutin, & Terracciano, 2014)

- Lower decline in O, C, E, and A

Other Trait Approaches

Dark Triad of Personality Characteristics’

- Psychopathy

- Machiavellianism

- Narcissism

Separate instead of complimentary of one another, although noted overlap with Big Five (O'Boyle et. al, 2015)

Dark Triad and FFM

Meta-analysis on DT overlap with FFM (O'Boyle et. al, 2015)

FFM explained 30-63% of variance in DT traits

Noted significant overlap between at least one FFM trait and each DT

Authors suggest that M may be suitable to fall under P due to pattern of FFM trait correlations / strong correlations, but in general, DT may not necessarily need to be partitioned off into another model altogether

Trait Approach Limitations

Often evaluated via self-report inventories

‘Barnum effect’ for results

Describes personality, but doesn’t explain origins

Comprehensiveness is questionable

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Session 2: Defining Performance

Performance has been heavily studied in psychology

- Industrial and Organisational Psychology key player

Definition and conceptualisation of performance contentious

- Underlying factors, definition, and scope

Dilemma in the early 90s of the ‘criterion problem’ with performance (Austin & Villanova, 1992)

The 'Criterion Problem'

Austin and Villanova’s (1992) --> Reviewed the difficulty in picking a criterion reflective of performance

- Multi-dimensional outcomes of interest

- Psychometric properties of outcome measurement

- Values in criterion picking

- Situational factors

Defining Performance

“…individual job performance should be defined as things that people actually do, actions they take, that contribute to the organization’s goals.” (Campbell & Wiernik, 2015, p. 48)

What Performance is NOT

Determinants of performance (e.g., intelligence, experience)

Outcomes of performance

Caveat: unless the outcome is a direct representation of the behaviours taken by the individual

Remember: Individual performance refers to the actions taken to fulfil the organisation’s goals in an organisational context

Performance Has Many Content Domains

Technical performance

Communication

Initiative and effort

Counterproductive work behaviour

Supervisory / management leadership

Hierarchical management performance

Peer/team leadership performance

Peer/team management performance

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About OCBs

Organisational Citizenship Behaviours argued as a key facet of performance (e.g., Dalal, 2005) in literature

Campbell & Wiernik’s (2015) --> Recognises recent acceptance of these behaviours falling under existing content domains of performance, and retain separation from CWBs

For example:

- Initiative and effort --> Taking on extra duties beyond a role description when in need

- Peer/team management --> Talking up your work team to outsiders

- Peer/team leadership --> Collegial support

Performance Is Dynamic

Performance is not static – performance fluctuates

Campbell and Wiernik (2015) note three main areas of dynamicism:

- Behavioural / cognitive content of the actions being performed

- Conditions where levels of performance vary

- Variations in expected levels of performance

These facets interact with one another

They will also vary across different performance domains

Pitfalls

Assuming outcomes = performance

- Effects outside of individual’s control infers spurious relationship

- Individual therefore must be in control of the outcome

Construct validity and reliability of performance measures

Cross-Cultural Differences in Performances

Mixed findings

Campbell & Wiernik (2015) --> Content domains appear to be largely invariant across cultures

Ployhart et al. (2003) model testing suggested that

- Different cultures use performance instruments similarly, but

- Interpretation of what the scores mean varies between cultures

Typical vs Maximum Performance

Are we examining the actions the individual takes in:

- An everyday, ‘standard’ set of circumstances, or

- A specific set of circumstances that elicit greater effort or attention?

Maximum performance controls for motivation factors as a determinant of performance

- Motivation is high during maximum performance, therefore determinants are abilities, skills, knowledge, and traits argues Beus & Whitman (2012)

- The ‘can do’ instead of ‘will do’

Typical vs Maximum Performance

Beus and Whitman (2012)

Criteria for a situation to elicit maximum performance

1) Examined individual must be aware they are being examined

2) The individual must be instructed to use all of their effort for the task they are performing

3) The duration of this episode of maximum performance needs to be short enough

Typical performance situations are generally found in an absence of the previous criteria

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Typical and Maximum Performance

Beus & Whitman (2012) suggest four criteria for fair comparisons

- Modality of measurement

- Specificity

- Length of service or tenure

- Reliability

Meta analytic evidence suggests both performance facets are distinct

Distributions of Data

Beck et al. (2014) argue that performance requires the following measurement criteria when looking at outcomes:

- A. That it reflects behaviour

- B. That it aggregates multiple behaviours

- C. Includes complete range of performers

- D. Includes complete range of performance

- E. Should be bounded by time

- F. Look at tasks or jobs that are comparable, and

- G. Avoid distortion from motivational factors

Assessment Methods

Ratings (Campbell & Wiernik, 2015)

- Many of the ‘common’ pitfalls for construct validity and measurement in psychology apply to ratings of performance

- Rater’s goal for a performance assessment identified as key facet

- 360 degree feedback is questionable in its utility

Advice for rater accuracy involves:

- “[raters] (a) have observed the ratee extensively, (b) accept the rating goal and the performance specifications, (c) understand the rating instrumentation, (d) know they are accountable for rating accuracy, (e) have ample time, and (f) are sensitive to such contaminants as liking for the ratee.” (p. 65)

Assessment Methods

Simulations (Campbell & Wiernik, 2015)

- More valid, but may be construct deficient due to resource requirements

- Typical vs. maximum performance influences

Performance Summary

Performance is therefore related to what the individual actually does, or what actions or behaviours they take, that are aligned with [the organisation’s] goals

It is multi-dimensional

Assessment methods need to keep these issues in mind, and strive for validity during assessment

Personality and Performance

Key areas of interest:

- Organisational context

- Academic context

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Use of Personality Data in the Workplace

- Personality is a relatively stable characteristic

- Using personality data

Selection Example - ANU

Comparison of costs for professional and academic staff member ‘poor selections’

The Importance of Good Selection Tools

Guion & Gottier (1965, p. 159)

- “There is no generalizable evidence that personality measures can be recommended as good or practical tools for employee selection”

Approximately 2500 publishers of personality tests in the US (Hough & Oswald, 2005)

Personality and Work Performance

General reviews

- Barrick & Mount (1991); Schmitt (2013)

Specific performance criteria, e.g.,

- Counterproductive work behaviours

- Safety behaviours

- Technical proficiency

Conceptualisation / measurement

- Typical vs. maximal, response method

Barrick & Mount (1991)

Five factor model somewhat new at the time

Early meta analysis on the personality --> performance link

Found generally weak relationships between personality and performance criteria

- Conscientiousness appeared to be most important predictor

- Estimated true correlations between .20 - .23 with performance criteria

- Extraversion (.26) and Openness to Experience (.25) moderately related to training performance

- Limited evidence for personality variations across occupation types

Barrick, Mount, & Judge (2001)

A meta–meta-analysis (meta analysing meta analyses!)

- Conscientiousness a key predictor across performance domains

- Neuroticism demonstrated weaker relationships across the board

- A, O, and E had very weak / inconsistent results across performance domains

Reflection of results from Barrick & Mount (1991)

Validity?

- “Objective indicators of performance include productivity data, turnover, promotions, and salary measures” (p. 13)

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The Issue of Scope

In addition to the scope / adequacy of performance criteria, the scope in which personality is examined has implications for research

Schmitt (2014)

- Validity for personality predicting performance varies across several criteria (Hough & Oswald, 2005)

-> Complex vs. narrow

-> Different personality dimensions vs. different domains of performance

- Domains vs. facets of personality

-> Neuroticism vs. anger et al.

- Advises to match personality prediction constructs with suitable outcome constructs

Example: Workplace Safety

Beus, Dhanani, and McCord (2014)

Engaging in / encouraging workplace safety practice identified as reflecting content domains of performance (e.g., initiative and effort)

Example: Programming Aptitude

Gnambs (2015)

Programming abilities with personality determinants

Interesting implications in terms of stereotyping

Alternatives to the Big Five and Performance

Dark Triad (Narcissism, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy) has gathered research interests in terms of how it might influence performance

Dark Triad and Performance

Wu & Lebreton (2011)

- Predict several outcomes of DT and prospect of counterproductive work behaviours, e.g.,

-> +ve Psychopathy more likely to engage in CWBs

-> +ve Narcissism more likely to perceive hostility in interpersonal interactions, and respond aggressively / inappropriately

-> +ve Machiavellianism more likely to engage in CWBs when goals are blocked

CWB Scale Example - Bennett & Robinson (2000)

-> Acted rudely toward someone at work

-> Publicly embarrassed someone at work

-> Taken property from work without permission

-> Spent too much time fantasizing or daydreaming instead of working

-> Falsified a receipt to get reimbursed for more money than you spent on business expenses

->Taken an additional or longer break than is acceptable at your workplace

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HEXACO and Performance

Key predictor of CWB – Integrity testing

- Relationships between integrity testing, personality (H-H), and engagement in counterproductive work behaviour (Marcus, Lee, & Ashton, 2007)

Face validity of the facets of Honesty-Humility, and how they relate to integrity / counter-productive work behaviour

- Sincerity

- Fairness

- Greed avoidance

- Modesty

Lee et al. (2008) noted both self/observer versions predicting Employee Integrity Index scores

Modalities of Performance

-> Typical vs. maximal performance (Ployhart, Lim, & Chan, 2001)

-> Looking specifically at transformational leadership as a performance facet

-> Variations in FFM predictiveness

Personality of Raters

Hariri, Rudolph, & Laginess (2015)

Rater agreeableness (.22) largest predictor of performance ratings of ratee

Extraversion and Neuroticism (both .08) and Openness (-.06) all significant but lesser predictors, with Conscientiousness having non significant impact

Noted interesting moderator effects

- Field vs. laboratory, administrative vs. R&D, accountability for ratings

Measurement Effects

Forced choice vs. single stimulus (Salgado & Táuriz , 2014)

Of the following 6 descriptors, choose up to 3 that describe you most accurately:

Fussy, careful, easy going, tense, anxious, distractible

Meta-analysed results noted that the quasi-ipsative approach demonstrated prior is more valid in predicting performance compared to single stimulus measures

The Takeaway

Choosing the right selection tools, in this case the right personality assessment measure/s, is important due to the data-driven implications

- The scope or level of detail in which you assess personality and performance at will have implications for the observed relationships, and therefore validity

- Seriously considering if facets or domains of either is important

- Considering sources of spurious effects is important

-> Modalities

-> Rater effects

-> Measurement effects

Self vs. Adult Ratings and Performance

MacCann, Lipnevich, Poropat, Wiemers, & Roberts (2015)

- Looked at high-school students

- Meta analysis on self vs. adult ratings

- Approach vs. avoidance traits

Findings

- Self ratings were weaker predictors than others’ ratings

- Approach traits were strong predictors than avoidance traits

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Academic Dishonesty

Behaviours such as cheating, plagiarism, etc. in pursuit of getting credit for coursework

- Parallels with CWB in workplace?

“In a recent survey of over 20,000 American high school students (Josephson Institute, 2012), 51% admitted to cheating on a test, 74% had copied another student’s homework, and 32% had copied an Internet document for a classroom assignment. Whitley’s (1998) review of cheating among college students indicated that approximately 43% had cheated on exams, 41% had cheated on homework, 47% had plagiarized, and 70% had engaged in at least one form of academic dishonesty.” (Giluk & Postlethwaite, 2015, p. 59)

Drawing Together

Conscientiousness appears to be a recurring determinant of performance

Shanahan, Hill, Roberts, Eccles, & Friedman (2014) proposed the Life Course of Personality model, which suggests propositions as to how conscientiousness is a key facet influencing cognitions and health behaviours important to performance

- Maps out manner in which C encourages taking care of yourself throughout lifespan

-> E.g. avoiding risk, keeping you psychologically healthy with regards to stress, etc.

The Takeaway

Self-report scores of personality from children may have less validity than those of their teachers or parents

- Variation in predictive ability between these frames of reference

Based on personality scores and the link to academic performance, this may provide a means of targeting students for intervention or education on other adaptive practices that may assist them

Less about blacklisting, more aligned with providing additional help

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Session 3: Motivation and Performance

Motivation

•“…an internal state, dynamic rather than static in nature, that propels action, directs behavior, and is oriented toward satisfying both instinctual and cultural needs and goals” (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2015)

•Note links to performance, e.g. job performance

•“…individual job performance should be defined as things that people actually do, actions they take, that contribute to the organization’s goals.” (Campbell & Wiernik, 2015, p. 48)

•We are therefore interested in the individual differences in these propelling / directing facets that influence performance i.e., motivation

Health Performance

Motivation is driving / propelling force behind behaviours geared towards goal fulfilment

What about goals that are health-related?

- Maintaining good physiological and psychological well-being

- Avoiding risks and hazards to the latter

- Correcting maladaptive behaviours into more adaptive ones

Early Motivation Theories

Biological emphasis in early motivation theories

- Instincts and reflexes

- Drives and homeostatic states

- Hunger and eating

Limitations

- Poorly differentiates individuals

Later Motivation Theories

Expectancy Theory (Bandura)

Deci & Ryan's (1985) Theory of Motivation

- Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation

-> Intrinsic

-> Internalised drive propelling you to enact a behaviour for no reason other than enjoyment of the behaviour itself

-> No external rewards

-> Subject to a state of ‘flow’

- Extrinsic

-> Drive of behaviour based on external reward cues or mechanisms

Influence of Rewards for Motivation

-> An ‘eroding effect’

-> Soma Puzzle studies (Deci, 1971; etc.)

-> Does motivation to perform decrease once we introduce rewards to an activity?

-> Pay for performance considerations

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Influence of Rewards on Motivation

-> Cameron and Pierce (1994) meta analysis suggested contradictory / weak effects

-> Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (1999) rebuttal on these claims

Self Determination Theory

-> Looks at motivation in terms of different types, not as a single construct (Deci & Ryan, 2008)

-> Internally driven vs. externally driven

-> Tendency towards fulfilling growth and development needs that drives motivation

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

-> Component of Self Determination Theory

-> What does a task offer that may make it intrinsically motivating?

-> Autonomy

•Behaviours internally driven or controlled

-> Competence

•Behaviours inform individual of abilities / avoid detrimental evaluation

-> Relatedness

•Security and support, although not requiring the presence of others

Self Determination Theory

Extrinsically motivated behaviours

Our performance can range from

-> Amotivation (non-performance)

-> Passive compliance

-> Being actively committed to the task

Value / regulatory understanding internalisation and integration

Self Determination Theory

Internalisation

- Adopting a value or sense of regulation related to the task

Integration

- ‘Owning’ the task so it seems to stem from the individual

Has variable effect on the degree of autonomy we perceive an extrinsically motivated task to have

- E.g., creating this lecture for career reasons vs. creating this lecture to meet Dean expectations of role duties

- Note difference in autonomy perceptions

Self Determination Theory

Ryan & Deci (2000) note that the greater a behaviour / activity is internalised and integrated, then this has positive implications for persistence in an activity

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Example: SDT and Physical Activity Performance

-> Owen, Smith, Lubans, Ng, & Lonsdale (2014)

-> Examined meta analysis / systematic review of literature on physical activity in children and SDT

Physical activity performance = observation, accelerometer, pedometer, etc.

Findings

-> Intrinsic motivation -- Identified regulation moderate +ve relationships

-> Introjection –- External regulation weakest –ve relationships

-> Amotivation -- weak –ve relationship

Problem: Adherence to Beneficial Behaviours

-> Health problems (e.g., type II diabetes, obesity) can be addressed by lifestyle changes / treatment regime adherence

-> However, planned treatment vs. actual adherence has a notable gap

E.g., limited quantity of prescriptions filled vs. prescriptions written

-> Ng et al. (2012) suggested that SDT is a likely mechanism of understanding this (lack of) performance in pursuit of health-related goals

Promoting Internalisation and Integration

-> Recall Cognitive Evaluation Theory

-> Similar principles apply to assist with the push towards internalisation and integration for extrinsically motivated activities

Autonomy: Volition in how/when

Relatedness: Modelling

Competence: Effectiveness

Example: SDT and Health Contexts

-> Ng et al. (2012) examined impact of health context across several domains on adherence to health-improving behaviours, and the impact on health-related outcomes

Example: SDT and Health Contexts

Findings

-> Meta-analysed findings from previous SDT and health context work

Autonomy supported health contexts predicted higher levels of autonomy, relatedness, and competency in patients or clients

Fulfilled needs and autonomously self-regulated behaviours predicted better outcomes for clients (e.g., mental health, physical health)

Controlled regulation on behaviours (e.g., introjected) had negative effects on psychological outcomes such as anxiety and depression

SDT Summary

-> Self Determination Theory provides a valid overview of the internalising / regulatory processes of motivation that encourage the persistence / onset of behaviours

-> In terms of performance in alignment with health-related goals, it has also demonstrated notable evidence of its efficacy

-> Complimentary approach: Theory of Planned Behaviour

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Problem: Alcohol Consumption in Undergraduate University Students

-> Caudwell, Mullan, & Haggar (2016)

-> Impacts health performance and academic performance

E.g., maintaining physical well-being via exercise and dietary choices, completing coursework tasks and demonstrating proficiency in assessments

Theory of Planned Behaviour

-> Ajzen (1985)

-> Activities and behaviours are propelled by three key considerations

-> Behavioural beliefs

Consequences of engagement in the activity/behaviour

-> Normative beliefs

Expectations of others related to the behaviour

-> Control beliefs

Factors that may either facilitate or hinder the behaviour

Theory of Planned Behaviour

-> Consequences of latter beliefs (Ajzen, 2002)

Behavioural beliefs --> Formation of positive/negative attitude towards the behaviour

Normative beliefs --> Formation of perception of subjective norms and social pressures associated with them

Control beliefs --> Formation of perceived behavioural control, tied to the perceived difficulty of the conducting the behaviour

-> Collectively funnel into intention tied to the behaviour

-> Given opportunity, individuals will act on their intention

Note: impact of perceived behavioural control

-> Context is important

Theory of Planned Behaviour

-> Multitude of research conducted on two forms of health performance

Health-enhancing behaviours

Health-risk behaviours

-> Intention --> Behaviour link noted as being generally weaker for health-risk behaviours and TPB (McEachan, Conner, Taylor, & Lawton, 2011) making intervention planning for these facets of health more difficult

Evidence for Theory of Planned Behaviour

-> McDermott et al. (2015) – meta-analysis of TPB and dietary patterns

Findings

-> Strong to moderate relationships between Attitudes, Perceived Behavioural Control, and Social Norms with intentions to engage in healthy dietary patterns or restricted dietary patterns

-> Moderate relationships noted for intentions and PBC predicting dietary pattern behaviours, respectively

-> Younger participants had stronger relationships between previous variables compared to older participants

Evidence for Theory of Planned Behaviour

-> Husebø, Dyrstad, Søreide & Bru (2012)

-> Examined exercise adherence predicted by TPB and other motivational factors in cancer patients and survivors

Findings

-> Demonstrated intention and PBC as moderate predictors of exercise adherence in this sample, but attitudes and self-efficacy did not add anything to the model

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Link Between Alcohol Use and TPB

-> Cooke, Dahdah, Norman, & French (2014) meta analysis

-> Health-risk behaviours: Intentions to (binge) drink and perceived control, as moderated by several other predictors (e.g., age)

Findings

-> Attitudes, intentions, and PBC all positively related to intentions

-> Self-efficacy +ve predictor of intentions, but not perceived control

-> Intention and self-efficacy both +ve predictors of alcohol consumption

Link Between Alcohol Use and TPB

-> Cooke, Dahdah, Norman, & French (2014) meta analysis

Findings (continued)

-> Among moderators considered, age had sig effect on intention --> consumption behaviours

Younger individuals less likely to plan their alcohol consumption compared to older adults?

Applications

-> “Rather than decrease an individual’s confidence to drink (which might be difficult), interventions could seek to increase SE about the avoidance of certain types of alcohol consumption behaviours.” (p. 15)

SDT and TPB

-> Caudwell and Haggar (2015) cited statistics such as 65% of individuals pre-drink before heading out for further drinking, and on average 40% of the alcohol consumption on a night is consumed during the pre-drinking session!

-> Reasons

Social facets

Monetary costs

-> Notable contributor to alcohol-related harms and sources of risk

Summary of TPB

-> Theory of Planned Behaviour provides a complimentary approach to understanding motivation and health performance behaviours, alongside Self Determination Theory

-> Implications of models allow practitioners to

Monitor determinants of (detrimental) performance

Design intervention strategies

Motivation and Work Performance: Machines vs Scientists

-> Early motivational theories applied to work settings viewed the employee as a machine

Parts, input and output

-> Revision of this approach in work context to employee as scientist

Cognitions and evaluations related to their work, and how these are tied to performance

Expectancies (e.g., Theory of Planned Behaviour from last week)

Note limitations in rationality

-> Emotions

-> ‘Person as Judge’ is new metaphor, or ‘Involved Person’

Example of Machine Theory: Maslow's Hierarchy

Basic (deficiency) needs: Physiological needs --> Safety needs

Psychological needs: Social needs --> Esteem needs --> Self-actualisation needs

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Example of Scientist Theory: Adams' Model

-> Equity (outcome + input in self --> outcome + input in others) as a reward for performance (will motivate)

-> Inequity will lead to:

changing input

changing outcome

distorting perception

leaving job

Herzberg's Two Factor Approach

Factor 1: Motivators (must score high)

Achievement, recognition, etc.

Low satisfaction: Apathy

High satisfaction: Job content --> Psychological growth

Factor 2: Hygiene (must score low)

Minimum required working conditions

No dissatisfaction: Apathy

High dissatisfaction: Job context --> Psychological pain, physical pain avoidance

Herzberg's Two Factor Approach

-> Controversial

Frequently under criticism due to methodological limitations, or multiple variations of how the constructs in the model are conceptualised by Herzberg

“Money is not a motivator”

Considered a dead end

-> Used by positive psychology approaches to organisational development and change

•Job enrichment processes (e.g., feedback, learning, control, communication)

•Links to emotional regulation (to be discussed shortly)

SDT and Work Performance

-> Meta analysis on intrinsic motivation, reward types, and performance task types (Cerasoli, Nicklin, & Ford, 2014)

Findings

-> Intrinsic motivation significant link to performance

Type of task moderated this effect: quality vs. quantity

-> Intrinsic motivation --> performance effect moderated by incentives

Indirectly salient incentives (not related to the task) strengthened the intrinsic motivation / performance link, in comparison to direct incentives

SDT and Work Performance

Findings (continued)

-> Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives explained equivalent variance in performance

-> Moderation effects

When the technical proficiency performance task was quantity based, extrinsic incentives explained more performance than intrinsic motivation

When the technical proficiency performance task was quality based, intrinsic motivation explained more performance variance than extrinsic incentives

SDT, Age, and Work Performance

-> Meta analysis on the moderating role of age on the SDT --> Performance relationship (Ng & Feldman, 2015)

-> The authors tested competing hypotheses about whether age may influence the autonomy --> outcome relationship in various ways

Findings

-> Ng & Feldman demonstrated that increased age strengthened the relationship between autonomy and job performance

Older workers valued more positive work experiences, therefore a job with greater autonomy aligned with these values, and enhanced the effect on performance – prioritising emotional regulation

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Affect

-> Shockley, Ispas, Rossi, & Levine (2012)

-> Psychological literature often uses the term affect to encompass:

Emotions

Mood

Dispositions

-> Disagreement in the literature about whether affect is addressed as discrete constructs reflective of each emotion, or multidimensional model

-> Watson, Clark, and Tellegen’s (1988) positive and negative affect model is a popular approach reflective of the latter

Positive and Negative Affect

-> Positive / Negative Affect

Valence of the emotional content

-> Level of Activation

Typically considered as high vs. low

-> Trait positive/negative affect

-> State positive/negative affect

•-> PANAS (Watson et al., 1988)

Emotions and Moods

-> Shockley et al. (2012)

-> Traits

High positive affectivity, or

Highly excitable (discrete emotion)

-> States

Emotions

-> Short-lived state of affectivity, often triggered by an event or target

Moods

-> Longer-lived state of affectivity, less intense compared to emotions

-> More diffuse, not directed at a root cause or event

PA/NA and Performance at Work

-> Ng and Sorensen (2009)

PA

+ In-role performance

+ Extra-role performance

- Absenteeism

NA

- In-role performance

- Extra-role performance

+ Absenteeism

PA/NA and Performance at Work

-> Shockley et al.’s (2012) meta analysis on PA/NA, state/trait, performance, and the temporal relationships between these variables

Findings

-> State/trait negative affectivity –vely related to task performance

Discrete negative emotions such as state anxiety / state sadness similarly –ve

-> State/trait positive affectivity +vely related to task performance

State happiness similar +ve relationship

PA/NA and Performance at Work

Findings (cont.)

-> OCBs predicted by trait/state PA/NA in anticipated directions

-> CWBs predicted by trait/state PA/NA in anticipated directions

Noted interesting interaction – ‘opposite’ affect and performance dimension stronger for traits, but ‘congruent’ affect and performance dimension stronger for states!

Suggestion for this effect: Perhaps those with trait NA tend to avoid helping out other people with extra-role behaviours (OCB)?

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PA/NA and Performance at Work

-> Kaplan, Bradley, Luchman, and Haynes (2009) Mediating Model

Extraversion vs. PA

Neuroticism vs. NA

Conscious Choice of Emotion Presentation

-> In the workplace, we do not have free reign to express our emotions in terms of what we may actually be experiencing

Customer service – positivity and cheeriness encouraged

-> Burden on the individual to halt or mask their true emotions, and present emotions that are consistent with what the organisation prefers

-> Emotional labour (Hochschild, 1983)

Emotional Labour

-> Deep acting

Intercepts or changes the way in which we process cues that would elicit emotions which are not necessarily welcome to display while at work

Emotion does not develop as a consequence

-> Surface acting

Regulation after the unwanted emotion has precipitated

Emotions are unchanged, but presentation of them is altered (masking)

Discord between what is presented and what is being experienced

-> Emotional dissonance

What is the difference between emotions being felt, and emotions that are required by my job?

Emotional Labour

-> Implications for performance (Hulsheger & Schewe, 2011)

Surface acting and resource depletion

Authenticity in emotional displays during interactions with others

-> Rapport implications

Deep acting circumvents these issues, therefore is performance better if individuals are more successful at invoking deep acting?

Does the dissonance between felt and required emotions impair performance?

Emotional Labour

-> Hulsheger & Schewe (2011)

-> Meta analysis to answer the previous questions

Findings

-> Underwhelming; surface acting demonstrated small negative relationships with some content domains of performance

-> Deep acting demonstrated moderate positive relationships with customer ratings of satisfaction

-> Emotional dissonance another small, but significant, contributor to task performance

Emotional Labour

-> Similar findings by Mesmer-Magnus, DeChurch, and Wax (2012)

-> No significant effect for discordant emotional states on performance, although significant (but weak) effect for congruent emotional states

Discordant – Surface acting, Congruent – Deep acting

-> Implications

Well-being of employees, not necessarily their performance

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Music, Emotion, and Athletic Performance

-> Lane , Davis, and Devonport (2011)

-> Examined the perceived importance of music as a motivating influence via emotion on athletic performance, and the impact this had on self-ratings of performance

-> Music picks chosen before athletic performance vetted by participants based on rhythm response, musicality, cultural impact, and association --> provided indicator of music-mood regulation

Findings

-> Demonstrated significant effect for music-mood regulation and self-rated performance

-> Runners believed that music picks were important in establishing a beneficial mood state for improved performance

Music, Emotion, and Work Performance

-> Example from recent Iraq conflict, and the contents of soldiers’ iPods (Gilman, 2010)

-> Technical Performance

-> Supervisory/peer/team leadership performance

How Does Motivation Inform Interventions

-> Person as Machine perspective

Behaviourist approach – Rewards contingent on behaviour

Landy (2012) described an example from a department store trying to encourage useful sales staff behaviour

-> Demonstrated successful effects for basic, task-based behaviours, but less useful when looking at more complex behaviours

How Does Motivation Inform Interventions

-> Job Enrichment

Making jobs more interesting to do

-> Applications to Maslow’s model

-> Hackman and Oldham (1976) – Five domains of enrichment

Skill variety

Autonomy

Task Significance

Task Identity

Task Feedback

How Does Motivation Inform Interventions

-> Job Enrichment (continued)

Ng and Sorensen (2009)

Positive affectivity associated with

-> Promotional opportunities

-> Procedural justice

-> Autonomy within the job

Negative affectivity associated with

-> Role conflict

-> Interpersonal conflict

-> General work overload

Need for Achievement

-> Individual difference variable linked to performance

-> Individuals with a higher Need for Achievement (nAch) typically:

Prefer tasks with clear feedback about their performance

Are moderately difficulty or risky

Prefer tasks that require a degree of planning (i.e. not off-the-cuff)

Prefer tasks where they are responsible for its outcome

-> Individuals with a lower nAch:

Choose tasks that do not have the previous qualities to them

In terms of difficulty, they either choose very easy or very difficult tasks

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Achievement Goals

-> Elliot & McGregor (2001)

Approach vs. Avoidance Goals

-> Approach = desirable or positive outcome

-> Avoidance = undesirable or negative outcome

Performance vs. Mastery Goals

-> Performance = individual aims to perform better than other individuals

-> Mastery = individual aims to better understand a concept, or master a task

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Session 4: Creativity and Leadership

Conceptualising Leadership

-> Leader emergence

-> Leadership effectiveness

Early Approach -- Great Man Theory

-> Carlyle’s Great Man theory

Assumed leaders had different traits compared to non-leaders

Looked at intelligence, physical characteristics, etc.

Modest relationships between these traits and leadership

Leadership Styles

-> Difference between behavioural and trait approaches

-> Task oriented vs. Interpersonally oriented

-> Participative vs. Directive

Laissez-faire

-> Inspiration and Empowerment

Transactional Leadership

-> Rewards are contingent on behaviour

Consequently influence is limited to behaviour

-> Pragmatic relationship, but little beyond this

Charismatic Leadership

-> Charismatic leadership

Followers are emotionally attached to the leader, based on charismatic qualities

Characterised by considering the tasks assigned by the leader as important, but not questioning the leader’s motivations behind these task assignments

Identification / charismatic qualities instil a degree of personal importance to the tasks at hand

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Transformational Leadership

-> “…leaders motivate their followers to move beyond self-interest and work for the collective good” (Wang, Oh, Courtright, & Colbert, 2011)

-> Link with motivation

Internalises the locus of causality (to use SDT terms) of tasks

Performance tasks = +ve intrinsic value

-> Contrasts with transactional leadership

Transactional - expected level of performance

Transformational - beyond expected level of performance

Transformational Leadership

-> Four primary behaviours demonstrated by transformational leaders

Inspirational motivation

Idealised influence

Intellectual stimulation

Individualised consideration

Charismatic vs. Transformational Leadership?

-> Several differences between theories, although components of charismatic leadership have been subsumed within transformational leadership

Both enhance loyalty, but charismatic leadership does not necessarily empower / strengthen followers (Landy, 2012)

Vision vs. personal qualities of the leader

Charismatic vs. Transformational Leadership?

-> Bass’ use of the term ‘charisma’ as part of the idealised influence element of transformational leadership was important in how it was originally described, i.e. charismatic leadership

-> However, other authors described in the previous slides were using the term ‘charismatic leadership’ to mean the emotionally-attached but not empowering relationship with subordinates

-> This is an instance of different authors using the same terms, but describing different things, unfortunately!

Transformational Leadership

-> Theoretical links to in-role performance (Wang et al., 2011)

Roles and future vision

Self-efficacy enhancement

Mentoring support

-> Theoretical links to extra-role performance

Enhanced social identification

Role modelling

Empowerment

Transformational Leadership and Performance

-> Transformational leadership benefits performance across multiple levels of the organisational hierarchy (Wang et al., 2011)

e.g., individual, team, organisational

-> Enhances performance at extra-role / team level tasks, but not at individual in-role tasks beyond that of transactional leadership

-> Effect sizes on performance are weaker in comparison to motivation, but this finding is offset by its broad effects across hierarchies

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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

-> LMX focuses on the “… quality of the relationship between a leader and a follower” (Martin et al., 2016, p. 67)

-> Leaders vary based on the format and type of the exchanges they have with their subordinates

This leads to implications for relationship quality

-> Questions raised by Martin et al. (2016):

Is LMX consistent across various performance domains?

Does LMX improve performance, or does performance improve LMX?

LMX and Performance

-> Martin et al. (2016) meta-analytic findings:

+ve moderate effects on task/OCB, -ve moderate effect on CWB

LMX is strongly mediated by other processes (e.g., motivation) in its link to performance

LMX predicts task performance, but task performance does not predict LMX

'Less Good' Leaders and Leadership

-> Consider instances of leaders that have prompted ‘less good’ outcomes for the workplace

-> Destructive leadership

-> ‘Toxic triangle’ of factors related to destructive leadership (Padrilla, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2002, p. 180)

Destructive leaders, Susceptible followers (Conformers & Colluders), Inconducive environments

Are Leaders Narcissists?

-> Interesting meta-analysis by Grijalva et al. (2015)

-> Emergence related to narcissism ratings, but not effectiveness

Ties to extraversion

-> Marginal effect of other-ratings of effectiveness predicted by narcissism, but self-report ratings are tied to narcissism ratings

-> Curvilinear trend between narcissism and leadership effectiveness

Gender Effects and Leadership

-> Meta analysis by Paustian-Underdahl, Walker, and Woehr (2014)

-> Generally leadership effectiveness has an approximate effect size of 0 for differences between male and female genders

-> This relationship is complicated based on moderating factors

Male-dominated vs. female-dominated organisation/occupation context

Self versus other ratings of leadership effectiveness

Hierarchical position of leadership role

Role Congruity Theory

Summary

-> Leadership can be considered from a variety of theoretical perspectives

Transactional

Charismatic and Transformational

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)

Destructive Leadership

-> Demonstrable implications for performance are tied to these leadership concepts

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Conceptualising Creativity

-> Creativity refers to formulating ideas that are

New

Useful

-> It must satisfy the criteria

Must be different from previous ideas

Must not be different merely to be different

Must be correct

Must be considered valuable

Must be goal appropriate

-> Note relationship with Innovation

Creativity Across Different Paradigms

-> Behavioural: Conceptualises creativity in terms of novel associations and tries to identify the behavioural correlates of novel learning processes.

-> Biological: Looks at the physiological correlates of creative thinking and how these processes may be manifested at the level of brain structure and neural processes.

-> Clinical: Looks at the extent to which creativity is associated with abnormal behaviour, either as a cause or consequence or psychological disorders.

-> Cognitive: Emphasizes the role of cognitive processes such as attention and memory in regard to creativity.

-> Developmental: Attempts to identify changes in creativity throughout the lifespan and how certain characteristics of the family may affect levels of creativity.

-> Educational: Looks at creativity in the context of formal education, and attempts to assess how different teaching modalities may influence students’ creativity.

-> Differential: Psychometric paradigm represents the leading approach to creativity.

Differential Approaches

-> Person

Dispositions, traits, etc.

-> Process

Cognitive processes associated with creativity

-> Product

Characteristics of creative works (e.g., music, sculpture, other aesthetic mediums)

-> Press

Situational contributors to creativity

Componential Approach (Amabile, 1988)

-> Expertise

-> Creative Thinking

-> Motivation

Personality and Creativity

-> Big Five results and creativity

+ve relationships with N, E, O

-ve relationships with A, C

-> Important to recognise role of intelligence when considering creativity

Measuring Creativity

-> Barron-Welsh Art Scale

86 item test

Whether like or dislike black or white figures

-> Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking

Includes verbal and non verbal components

4 Components of creative thinking: flexibility, fluency, originality, and elaboration

-> Divergent Thinking

Example: As many uses they can think of a paperclip, blanket and pencil case

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Self-Report vs. Other-Report

-> Ng & Feldman (2012)

-> Noted variation in patterns of correlates between creativity and individual/workplace variables depending on self-report vs. other-reported data

Effect sizes larger for self-report data in most cases

-> Authors caution wariness over common methods variance as a source of data bias

Creativity and Performance

-> Creativity’s value often considered through lens of innovative work practices it spurs

-> Innovative practices therefore tied to task performance

-> Significant relationships found between creativity and innovation demonstrated in organisations

Meta-analysis by Sarooghi, Libaers, & Burkemper (2015)

-> Moderator effects

Size of organisational firm

Processes vs. products

Creativity and Leadership?

-> Transformational leadership in particular can improve creativity

Leader encourages the challenging of status quo and related ideas

Empowers individuals with self-efficacy to believe they can approach things differently

Encourages problem solving

Is more amenable to failure as a means of learning something new

-> Wang et al. (2011) demonstrated significant positive relationship between transformational leadership and creative performance in accordance with these ideas

Training for Creativity

-> Based on array of links between creativity and innovative behaviours at work, training to develop creativity has received attention

-> Various approaches, depending on what is being targeted

Problem solving, lateral thinking, etc.

-> Cognitive approaches to improving creativity appeared to be most effective

Success of creativity training --> developing and providing guidance concerning the application of requisite cognitive capacities (Scott, Leritz, & Mumford, 2004, p. 382)

Improved strategies / heuristics for working with knowledge

Summary

-> Creativity is an individual difference factor that has links to performance (often via innovative practices)

-> Has various means of conceptualisation, although psychologists often look at it from a differential perspective

Informs training and intervention strategies

-> Creativity has links to leadership on the basis of transformational leadership

Creativity -- Componential Model (Amabile, 1988)

-> Intrinsic motivation linked to improved creativity

-> Factors that influence intrinsic motivation in the work environment:

Challenge

Autonomy

Workgroup supports

Supervisory encouragement

Organisational encouragement

Organisational impediments

Página 29

Creativity Process

Four general stages:

1. Problem definition

2. Preparation

3. Idea generation

4. Validation and Communication

Individual Determinants of Creativity

-> Expertise

Talent, education, etc.

-> Personality, cognitive style, working style

More risk-taking

More independent

Challenge the status quo

More tolerant of ambiguity

Energetically try to solve problems

-> Intrinsic motivation

Creative Thought Processes

-> Ideation stage

Convergent thinking

-> Arriving at the potential correct solution to a problem

Divergent thinking

-> The production of possible alternatives

-> Evaluation stage

Does my idea seem like the best pick? Is it valid?

Requires a degree of judgement on behalf of the individual

Measurement of Convergent Thinking

-> Mednick’s (1962) Remote Associates Test

-> Provides measurement of insight

-> Example:

Birthday line surprise

Answer is party

-> Birthday party, party line, surprise party

-> Fourth word in sequence can either be placed as a suffix or prefix

-> Agnoli et al. (2016) note that compound words as outlined above are tethered to the language ability of the individual, and not just to insight

-> Alternative items that look at semantic ties (e.g., rat blue cottage / cheese) are a better indication of insight, but aren’t as readily available in the literature unfortunately

Measurement of Divergent Thinking

-> Titles task (Agnoli et al., 2016)

Coming up with as many alternative titles for three movies with non-English language posters as you can

Scoring

-> Similar to that of the Guilford’s Alternative Uses Task

-> Can score based on fluency, originality, etc.

Summary

-> Creativity is influenced by both individual and environmental influences

-> Consideration of how to facilitate creativity in an organisational or educational setting requires

Examination of job design

Examination of individual characteristics

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Practice MCQs

1.

Perceived behavioural control refers to:

a. Your understanding of the social norms related to a behaviour

b. Your understanding of the limitations or impediments related to fulfilling a behaviour

c. Your understanding of the consequences of engaging in a behaviour d. Your overall intention to engage in a behaviour

d. Your overall intention to engage in a behaviour

2.

Which of the following examples reflects an externally oriented locus of control?

a. Believing fate has the largest say in whether you gain admission to a course you want.

b. Believing your consistent training at the gym lowered your half-marathon run time this year.

c. Believing going to bed on time will help you feel less rubbish the following morning.

d. Believing your pest-free tomatoes are due to your diligent monitoring.

3.

Supplementary fit refers to which of the following approaches to conceptualising fit?

a. Does the individual address a gap in the environment?

b. Does the environment address a gap that the individual needs fulfilled?

c. Is there a degree of similarity between the individual and their environment?

d. All of the above

4.

Which of the following is not an interest domain in Holland's RIASEC model?

a. Artistic

b. Conventional

c. Investigative

d. Economical

5.

Which of the following conceptualisations of fit is the strongest determinant of academic performance?

a. Interest-Major Fit

b. Demands-Abilities Fit

c. Needs-Supplies Fit

d. Perceived Fit

6.

What is an evolutionary solution to the increase in hip torque for bipedal hominids during pregnancy?

a. Wedging of the lumbar vertebra

b. Wedging of the cerebellum

c. Greater absorption of calcium to improve bone density

d. Females possessing more vertebra

7.

If I were to provide an indication on what I believed my preference for a particular value was, and what I believed my organisation's preference was, if a researcher were to look at the correlation between these two variables they would be inferring _______________ fit.

a. Perceived

b. Objective

c. Subjective

d. Differential

8.

If I demonstrated traits of being analytical, curious, and having broad interests, I would most likely have interests consistent with which of Holland's RIASEC domains?

a. Realistic

b. Conventional

c. Investigative

d. Social

9.

What did Carlyle's 'Great Man' theory of leadership suggest?

a. Leaders had different traits to non-leaders

b. Only men were competent leaders

c. The circumstances in which a leader attains their position was important to consider

d. Leaders differed from non-leaders based on their established family wealth

10.

The style of leadership that is likely to be most beneficial to subordinate development is:

a. Transactional leadership

b. Charismatic leadership

c. Transformational leadership

d. Directive leadership

11.

What facet does leader-member exchange (LMX) theory focus on?

a. The monetary compensation provided by the leader to the subordinate

b. The quality of the relationship between the leader and the subordinate

c. The time spent conversing between the leader and the subordinate

d. The share or stock options provided by the leader to the subordinate

12.

Transactional leadership is typified by:

a. Rewards being contingent on behaviour

b. Leaders empowering subordinates

c. Charisma and charm encouraging subordinate behaviours

d. Leaders providing a vision that appears motivating and challenging

13.

Creative ideas must be both:

a. New, and involve technology

b. New, and useful

c. New, and complex

d. New, and marketable

14.

What is the limbal ring?

a. Evidence of parasitic infection.

b. A pattern of coloration on the iris.

c. The ratio of shoulder-to-waist.

d. The diameter of the iris in proportion to the white of the eye.

15.

Which of the following is not a common indicator of intelligence?

a. Processing speed and reaction time

b. Working memory

c. Pattern recognition ability

d. 2D4D ratio

16.

Which personality trait most consistently correlates with improved exam and continuous assessment performance?

a. Neuroticism

b. Openness to Experience

c. Introversion

d. Conscientiousness

17.

Did lumbar curvature change as a function of women wearing high heels, and did it improve ratings of attractiveness?

a. No; there was no effect on attractiveness.

b. No; the improvement in attractiveness was due to an illusory enhancement in leg length.

c. Yes; it improved attractiveness for all photographed women.

d. Yes; but only for women who it pushed their lumbar curvature closer to the optimum angle.

18.

Which of the following is not a criterion on which personality theories are often judged?

a. The theory must not be too simple

b. The theory must bring value to the existing literature

c. It must be possible to empirically test the theory

d. The theory must predict some real-world behaviour

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19.

While evidence for personality traits being predictive of workplace performance has been presented, what is a potential confounding effect on the validity of these results?

a. The use of unstandardised and standardised coefficients in reporting the study findings.

b. The use of outcomes of performance that may not necessarily be under the individual's control.

c. The use of meta-analysis methods on existing meta-analysis findings.

d. The use of data from studies older than 10 years.

20.

What effect can measurement scope have on personality and performance research?

a. Facet measures are always better predictors of performance in comparison to domain measures.

b. Facet measures may demonstrate relationships of different strength and/or direction compared to domain measures.

c. Domain measures have greater validity in comparison to facet measures.

d. Domain measures are always better predictors of performance in comparison to domain measures.

21.

Regarding the prediction of job performance, personality inventories are...

a. Not at useful as reference letters and previous job experience, but better predictors than IQ tests and structured interviews.

b. Better predictors than reference letters, previous job experience, IQ tests, or structured interviews.

c. Not as useful as IQ tests and structured interviews, but better predictors than reference letters and previous job experience.

d. Worse predictors than reference letters, previous job experience, IQ tests, or structured interviews.

22.

Conscientiousness is one the Big Five personality factors. What is it associated with?

a. Anxiety, depression, self-consciousness

b. Assertiveness, excitement-seeking, activity

c. Trust, compliance, modesty

d. Competence, order, self-discipline

23.

In psychology, the dispositional approach to the conceptualisation of personality:

a. Views personality in terms of consistent and unchanging tendencies to act, think and feel regardless of context.

b. Views personality in terms of unrelated states or behaviours determined by situational factors.

c. Assumes that individuals are unique and that two different people cannot be described using the same terms.

d. Emphasises the unique nature of individuals' life experiences.

24.

Which of the following is not a potential problem with self-report measures?

a. The answers given on self-report measures are not quantifiable

b. Some people are unwilling to answer accurately (they may, for example, be embarrassed)

c. Some are unable to answer accurately because they have little awareness of non-conscious processes

d. Slight variations in the design of questionnaires can significantly bias the responses given

25.

Which of the following is not a visual cue that is theorised to have guided the selection of relationship partners?

a. Lumbar curvature

b. Hand span

c. Muscularity and height

d. Hip fat

26.

According to the proposed biological basis for personality, extraverts are thought to have:

a. Lower cortical arousal to introverts.

b. Higher cortical arousal to introverts.

c. The same level of cortical arousal to introverts.

d. Larger brains than introverts.

27.

What is the main criticism for the Five Factor Model of personality?

a. Its lack of theoretical explanations for the development of some of its personality factors.

b. Some of its personality factors have been shown to be completely statistically irrelevant.

c. The new personality dimensions added are not representative of human personality.

d. It has poor reliability and validity.

28.

The 'criterion problem' referred to which challenge in performance measurement?

a. Defining an ultimate criterion that encompasses job performance

b. Training observers to accurately rate task performance

c. Prescribing scoring techniques to assess task performance

d. Gender-related variations in job performance assessment

29.

A manager examines an employee's job performance based on the facets of their formal role description. Will this approach provide a valid examination of job performance?

a. Yes, because job performance is the same as a role description.

b. Yes, because a role description includes all behaviours that contribute to an organisation's goals.

c. No, because a role description does not include all behaviours that contribute to an organisation's goals.

d. No, because a role description is not created by the employee.

30.

Which of the following is not a criteria for a situation to elicit maximum performance?

a. The examined individual must be aware they are being examined.

b. The individual must have proficiency in the task they are required to perform.

c. The individual must be instructed to use all of their effort for the task they are performing.

d. The duration of the performance episode needs to be short.

31.

Which of the following definitions of performance is most consistent with Campbell and Wiernik's (2015) discussion of the construct?

a. Performance involves things that people actually do, and the actions that they take, that contribute to fulfilling goals.

b. Performance involves underlying, unconscious forces, that stimulate an individual's behaviour or cognitions.

c. Performance is an individual's reaction to environmental stimuli.

d. Performance concerns the cognitions that propel individuals towards certain behaviours or actions.

32.

Simulation tasks are likely to reflect which modality of performance?

a. Maximum, due to the short duration of the simulation.

b. Maximum, due to the participant's need for achievement.

c. Typical, due to the resource requirements.

d. Typical, due to the participant's need for achievement.

33.

Broadly, how has Self Determination Theory demonstrated links to work performance?

a. Intrinsic motivation has a significant link to performance.

b. Extrinsic incentives do not have a significant link to performance.

c. Quantity of friends in the workplace has a significant link to performance.

d. Extrinsic incentives are more important to tasks that require quality, not quantity, in performance.

34.

Affect does not commonly encompass which of the following concepts?

a. Emotion

b. Mood

c. Dispositions

d. Motivation

35.

Affectivity is considered in Watson et al.'s (1988) framework in terms of which intersecting continua?

a. Valence and Level of Activation

b. Valence and Emotional Distance

c. Strength and Level of Activation

d. Strength and Emotional Distance

36.

Job enrichment is reflected best by which of the following attempts at work design?

a. Paying employees more money to perform their task.

b. Allowing employees to have plants in their office space.

c. Trying to make a job more interesting and cognitively involving to perform.

d. Ensuring that there is a monthly staff meeting to improve camaraderie at work.

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37.

Emotions are...

a. Longer-lived states of affectivity, which are more intense than moods.

b. Shorter-lived stated of affectivity, which are more intense than moods.

c. Traits of the individual, which are more intense than moods.

d. Traits of the individual, which are less intense than moods.

38.

Deci and Ryan's early work on motivation suggested that it could be considered in which two forms?

a. Drives and Needs

b. High Need for Achievement and Low Need for Achievement

c. Internal and External

d. Intrinsic and Extrinsic

39.

Individuals who were viewed as more attractive were often _________ considered to be guilty. Guilty attractive people were often given __________ punishments compared to less attractive people.

a. less likely; more lenient

b. more likely; more lenient

c. more likely; less lenient

d. less likely; less lenient

40.

Early motivation research suggested that intrinsic motivation would be affected by rewards in which way?

a. Rewards would erode intrinsic motivation.

b. Rewards would enhance intrinsic motivation.

c. Rewards initially enhanced, then eroded intrinsic motivation.

d. None of the above.

41.

Which of the following was not discussed as a predicted ability for an individual based on their perceived attractiveness pre-adulthood?

a. Intelligence

b. Lumbar Curvature

c. Behavioural Problems

d. Social Status

42.

Brody is deeply involved in playing videogames early one evening, and fails to register several calls from the other end of the house suggesting that it's time to leave and catch a dinner reservation. Which state tied to intrinsic motivation is this behaviour reflective of?

a. Rudeness

b. Flow

c. Temporal dissonance

d. External regulation

43.

Which of the following is not a factor Ajzen proposed to propel activities and behaviours?

a. Behavioural beliefs

b. Normative beliefs

c. Control beliefs

d. Extrinsic beliefs

44.

Which of the following is not an evolution-derived visual cue of male attractiveness?

a. Facial Masculinity

b. Height

c. Muscularity

d. Ear Angularity

45.

The Theory of Planned Behaviour generally performs _________ at predicting health enhancing behaviours in comparison to health risk behaviours.

a. better

b. worse

c. equivalently

d. unreliably

46.

What is the proposed relationship covered in the lecture regarding people's intelligence and their probability of believing conspiracy theories?

a. Intelligent people are more likely to probe for further information to confirm or refute their suspicions, which builds evidence for the conspiracy theory.

b. Less intelligent people are more likely to hold more pieces of information related to the conspiracy theory in their working memory, burdening them with more information about the theory, and therefore making it more believable.

c. Once a more intelligent person has decided that a conspiracy theory is true, it is harder to talk them out of it compared to a less intelligent person.

d. Both A and C.

47.

Which of the following is an example of an individual differences approach to gathering elite athlete data?

Select one:

a. Comparing elite athletes to skilled players on a batting accuracy task

b. Conducting a repeated-measures batting accuracy task for each elite athlete, varying the onset of visual occlusion between trials

c. Conducting a between-groups examination of batting accuracy for skilled and elite athletes following an intervention

d. Comparing a team of elite athletes to another team of elite athletes on average batting accuracy following a fatigue task

48.

What are the three sources of constraints that shape a biological system towards optimal organisation according to Newell's Contraints Theory?

a. Task Mastery, Task Randomness, Pattern Recognition

b. Physical, Learning Style, and Human Factors

c. Individual, Environmental, and Task

d. Psychological, Physiological, and Environmental

49.

Why might we be interested in looking at individual differences in elite athlete performance in comparison to group differences?

a. Learning is only observable at the individual level, not at the group level

b. Elite athletes are highly narcissistic, and don't participate well in experimental groups

c. Sample size limitations at this level of ability make it difficult to adequately power a group-based test

d. All of the above

50.

Do people that are more intelligent lie more?

a. Yes, as they know they can get away with it.

b. No, as intelligent people are generally morally superior.

c. Yes, although they tell less sophisticated lies.

d. No, although they can tell more convincing lies.

51.

Learning, and how it transfers into performance for elite athletes, is best considered as a( n) ______________ process.

a. unmeasurable

b. linear

c. individually-differing, non-linear

d. random

52.

What does the Theory of Mind refer to?

a. Understanding that if an object is obstructed from sight, it still exists.

b. Understanding that what others may think, feel, and know may differ from what you think, feel, and know.

c. Understanding that your thoughts and feelings are identical to that of everyone else around you.

d. Understanding that you have thoughts, feelings, and know about things.