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Key Words
Fichas del conjunto (92)
- 1Deferred gratificationpostponing immediate rewards or pleasures, generally with the aim of producing a greater reward at a later date
- 2Immediate gratificationseeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future
- 3Present-time orientationseeing the present as more important than the future and so having no long term goals or plans
- 4Cultural capitalthe knowledge, attitudes, values, language, abilities and tastes that the middle class transmit to their children
- 5Material deprivationpoverty; a lack of basic necessities such as adequate diet, housing, clothing, or the money to buy these things
- 6Cultural deprivationthe theory that many working class and social minority children are inadequately socialised and therefore lack the ‘right’ culture needed for educational success
- 7Speech codespatterns or ways of using language
- 8Restricted codethe working class use this speech pattern which is context-bound and consists of short, grammatically simple sentences and limited vocabulary
- 9Elaborated codethe middle class use this speech pattern which is context-free and consists of complex sentences and the ability to describe abstract ideas
- 10Fatalismthe belief that all events are predetermined and therefore inevitable. You can’t change your position, “whatever will be, will be”
- 11Collectivismvaluing being part of a group rather than an individual
- 12Compensatory educationGovernment education policies such as operation HeadStart in the USA that seek to tackle the problem of underachievement by providing extra support and funding to schools and families in deprived areas
- 13Marketisationthe policy of introducing ideas such as supply and demand to areas run by the state, such as education. The 1988 Education Reform Act introduced this idea by encouraging competition between schools and choice for parents
- 14Triagethe process where schools sort pupils into categories like ‘hopeless cases’, ‘those who will pass anyway’ and ‘those who have the potential to pass’ in order to give priority to those who will boost the school’s exam league table ranking
- 15Ethnocentricseeing or judging things in a biased way from the viewpoint of a specific culture, eg. the National Curriculum in the UK is seen as ethnocentric as it values white culture, literature and music, and disregards other cultures
- 16Labellingthe process of attaching a meaning or definition to an individual or group
- 17Macroa sociological approach to research that aims to find out WHAT is happening in society. This approach is considered to be quantitative because it is easier to use statistics to identify patterns and trends in society
- 18Closed questionsquestions that allow a limited choice of answers from a pre-set list. They produce quantitative data, and can easily be analysed
- 19Open questionsquestions that allow respondents to answer in as much depth as they want. The results will be more valid, but answers can be harder to analyse
- 20Objectivityanalysing data in the absence of bias or opinions on the part of the researcher
- 21Experimentssociological studies carried out under test conditions in order to remove the influence of confounding factors
- 22Interviewsa method of gathering information by asking respondents face-to-face or over the telephone. Interviews can be structured (pre-set, standardised questions with no room to expand answers), or unstructured (more like guided conversation, with time to get more valid answers)
- 23Non-participant observationa primary research method where the observer records events occurring from afar, without becoming involved in them
- 24Participant observationa primary research method where the observer takes part in activities with the group being studied, by having a role within the group
- 25Questionnairesa list of questions that is tailored by the researcher to collect data on their topic of study
- 26Social surveysystematic collection of the same type of data from a particular population
- 27Samplea selection from the research population
- 28Sampling unita member of the research population
- 29Sampling framea list of members of the research population
- 30Random samplea sample which gives every member of the sampling frame an equal chance of being selected
- 31Systematic samplea systematic selection of people from the sampling frame, eg. every 10th member
- 32Stratified samplea sample which attempts to reflect particular characteristics of the research population. The population is divided into strata in terms of age, gender etc., and the sample is randomly drawn from each stratum
- 33Quota samplea stratified sample in which selection from the strata is not random
- 34Snowball samplemembers of the sample select each other
- 35Volunteer samplemembers of the sample are self-selected, eg. they choose to respond to a questionnaire printed in a magazine
- 36Response ratethe percentage of the sample that participates in the research
- 37Self-completion questionnairea questionnaire completed by the respondent
- 38Structured interview/interview questionnairea questionnaire read out by an interviewer who also records the answers
- 39Operationalisetranslating concepts into a form which can be measured
- 40Codingclassifying answers into various categories
- 41Closed questionsquestions in which the range of responses is fixed by the researcher
- 42Open questionsquestions which allow the respondent to answer in their own words
- 43Postal questionnairea questionnaire mailed to respondents with a request to mail it back after completion
- 44Structured interviewa questionnaire which is read out and filled in by the interviewer using all the same questions
- 45Semi-structured interviewsimilar to a structured interview, but the interviewer is allowed to probe with additional questions that they think of during the interview
- 46Unstructured interviewfew, if any, pre-set questions, though researchers usually have certain topics they wish to cover. This is like a normal conversation
- 47Group interviewsinterviews which involve an interviewer and a group of respondents
- 48Focus groupsgroup interviews in which the interviewer encourages respondents to discuss topics with each other
- 49Interviewer biasthe effect that the interviewer has on the respondent's answers
- 50Non-directive interviewingan interviewing technique which seeks to avoid leading or directing respondents to answer in particular ways
- 51Rapporta friendly, trusting and understanding relationship
- 52Ethnographythe study of the way of life of a group of people. It often involves an attempt to see the world from their point of view
- 53Covert researchthe identity of the researcher and purpose of the research are hidden from those being studied
- 54Overt researchthe identity of the researcher and purpose of the research are made clear to those being studied
- 55Key informanta member of a group being observed who develops a close relationship with the researcher and helps them by answering questions, introducing them to other members, and so on
- 56Behaviour schedulea checklist of activities which are noted on the schedule when they occur
- 57Structured observational schedulea fixed list of behaviours that a researcher can tick off during an observation, which allows them to then analyse the frequency of certain behaviours relevant to their research
- 58Verstehenwhen a researcher attempts to understand another person’s experience as deeply as possible
- 59Pilot studya small-scale trial run, used to test hypotheses, come up with new theories, allow interviewers to practise, and adapt questions in order to better suit the topic being studied
- 60Hawthorne effectwhere the subjects of a research study know that they are being studied, and begin to behave differently, altering the results of the study by reducing the validity
- 61Informed consentwhere the people taking part in a study understand the purpose of a study and have agreed to continue
- 62TriangulationA weakness in one method can be avoided by using a second method that is strong in the area that the first is weak
- 63Social desirabilitythe tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that is viewed favourably by the rest of society
- 64Validitywhen data measures what is claims to be measuring, and shows a true picture of what social reality is like
- 65Reliabilitythe extent to which an experiment, test, or measuring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials
- 66Going nativewhen the researcher becomes too immersed in the group that they are studying, so loses objectivity
- 67Functionalisma consensus perspective that sees society as a collection of institutions with shared values and norms, that work together in order to keep society functioning properly
- 68Social solidaritywhen everybody in society shares the same norms and values, so can function together as a group
- 69Value consensuswhen everybody is socialised into the same norms and values
- 70Meritocracya society in which everybody has an equal opportunity to succeed, as they are rewarded for their hard work and ability
- 71Complex division of labourthe production of a single item requires many different skills, so people need to cooperate
- 72Universalistic standards/impersonal ruleseverybody follows the same set of values, as well as rules, which promotes social solidarity
- 73Ascribed statusthe status that a person automatically gains at birth, usually depending on what class they are born into
- 74Achieved statusthe respect and hierarchy that someone can gain throughout their life by working hard and being a high achiever
- 75Marxisma conflict perspective based on the ideas of Karl Marx. The perspective sees society as being made up of classes (the two main ones being the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who must sell their labour) and functioning by exploitation
- 76Conflicta conflict theory is one where a group in society is constantly fighting to overcome another, or one group is considered superior to others
- 77Inequalitywhen one group in society gets superior goods or opportunities to others, eg. the relationship between a factory owner and factory employee is unequal, as the factory owner is exploiting the worker’s labour to make a profit
- 78Fallacy of meritocracythe idea that meritocracy is an ideology that legitimises inequality by falsely claiming that everyone has equal opportunities and unequal rewards are the ‘natural’ result of unequal ability
- 79False class conciousnesswhen a person is unaware that their current state of living is unequal - they may believe that there is nothing they can do about it
- 80Exploitationpaying workers less than the value of their labour. According to Marxists, it is a process whereby the bourgeoise extract surplus value or profit from the labour of the proletariat.
- 81Structuralisttheories that see individuals as being shaped by the way society is structured or organised (top-down)
- 82Bourgeoisiea Marxist term for the capitalist class, the owners of the means of production (factories, machinery, raw materials, land, etc.). Marx argues that the bourgeoisie's ownership of the means of production also gives them political and ideological power
- 83Proletariatthe working class in capitalist society. They own no means of production and are ‘wage slaves’ forced to sell their labour power to the bourgeoisie in order to survive
- 84Hierarchyan organisation or social structure based on a ‘pyramid’ of senior and junior positions and top-down control; eg, an army with its different ranks and command from above
- 85Ideological state apparatusinstitutions such as religion, media, and education, which help to control people by socialising them into the dominant class ideologies, which teach them that they have no choice but to accept their fate, and in this way, prevent rebellion
- 86Repressive state apparatususing violence, in the form of the army, police, judicial system, and prisons, to enforce ruling class ideology and prevent rebellion
- 87Correspondence theoryBowles and Gintis’ concept describing the way in that the organisation and control of schools mirrors of ‘corresponds to’ the workplace in capitalist society. For example, the control teachers exert over students mirrors the control managers exert over workers
- 88Hidden curriculumthings learnt in the education system that are not formally taught, and are simply acquired through the everyday workings of a school, such as obedience, conformity and competitiveness
- 89Hegemonywhen socially powerful people use their power to force people of a lower status than them to obey, by convincing them that it is within their best interests
- 90New Righta conservative political perspective whose supporters believe in self-reliance and individual choice, rather than dependence on the state. They believe in applying free market principles, eg. the marketisation of education, and argue that generous welfare benefits encourage the growth of an underclass
- 91marketisationthe policy of introducing market forces of supply and demand into areas run by the state, such as education and the NHS. The 1988 Education Reform Act began the marketisation of education by encouraging competition between schools and choice for parents
- 92new vocationalismthe idea that education should be primarily about meeting the needs of the economy, especially by equipping young people with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values needed to prepare them for work
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- A level (Education with Research Methods) Sociology Fichas sobre Key Words, creado por Joanna Griffith el 02/04/2015.
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- Joanna Griffith
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