GoConqr has a new look! Let us know what you think.

Sign up free

Flashcards

bio 11 exam

Madison Holmes Biology Grade 11 English 200 cards

Cards in this deck (200)

  1. 1External respirationtakes place in the lungs and involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules between the air and the blood
  2. 2internal respirationtakes place within the body and involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules between the blood and tissue fluids -- required for aerobic respiration
  3. 3the functions of the respiratory systemobtain oxygen
    remove carbon dioxide
    vocalization - required for people to speak
    straining - occurs during childbirth to help push the child out
  4. 4nasal cavityair enters the nasal cavity
    -nostrils are lined with cilia which cleans the air
    -turbinate bones that line the cavity are covered with capillaries - blood warms the air
    -lined with mucus which moistens the air
  5. 5pharynxcommon to both the respiratory system and digestion systems
    -tonsils are found here
  6. 6larynxalso called "Adam's apple"
    contains vocal cords
  7. 7epiglottisflap like structure that prevents food from entering your trachea
  8. 8tracheaapprox. 12cm long
    supported by c shaped rings of cartilage
    covered in cillia
  9. 9bronchibranches from the trachea into each lung (left and right)
    left bronchus is shorter
  10. 10bronchiolesvery elastic tissue
    many bronchioles branch off each bronchus like a tree's branch
  11. 11alveoli-raspberry shaped sacs at the end of each bronchiole
    -site of gas exchange between the respiratory and circulatory systems
    -each alveoli sac is lined with capillaries
    -have a film of moisture
    -during inhalation they are bulb shaped
    -during exhalation they collapse
  12. 12how do lungs expand and contractthe diaphragm (large sheet of muscles under the lungs) and the intercostal muscles (muscles of the rib cage) contract expanding the lungs or relax which makes the lungs contract
  13. 13how many lobes in each lungleft lung has 2 lobes
    right lung has 3 lobes
  14. 14pleural membraneslungs are surrounded by two pleural membranes -one membrane is physically attached to the lungs, one is attached to the thoracic cavity walls
    the space in between the pleural membranes is called the intrathoracic space
    the pleural membranes allow the lungs to adhere to the thoracic cavity and explains why lungs expand when the volume of the thoracic cavity increases
    -if one is punctured (air gets into the intrathoracic cavity) the lung(s) can collapse
  15. 15expanding/contracting the ribcageexpanding the ribcage is called inspiration or inhaling (high lung volume)
    contracting the lungs is called expiration or exhalation (low lung volume)
  16. 16gas exchangeoxygen diffuses into blood from aveloi
    carbon dioxide diffuses out of blood into aveloi
    oxygen diffuses into cells from blood
    carbon dioxide diffuses out of cells into blood
    largest change in partial pressure of oxygen is in the capillaries
  17. 17gas exchange of oxygenoxygen moves from atmosphere to alveloi, moves into blood and dissolves in plasma
    oxygen is not very soluble in blood so when oxygen dissolves into plasma, hemoglobin on a red blood cell greatly increases the carrying capacity of oxygen by blood
  18. 18hemoglobinheme (iron containing)
    globin (protein component)
    consists of 4 polypeptides (parts of a protein molecule)
    heme bonds to oxygen forming a weak bond (easily broken) called oxyhemoglobin
    other oxygen molecules can dissolve in plasma
  19. 19carbon dioxide carried by the bloodmost of the bodies carbon dioxide combines with water from plasma - forms carbonic acid
    enzyme carbonic anhydrase increases rate of chemical reaction - decreases concentration of carbon dioxide in plasma making sure carbon dioxide keeps diffusing into blood
    2nd most amount of carbon dioxide combines with hemoglobin - forms carbaminohemoglobin
    a little carbon dioxide is carries in plasma - carbon dioxide is more soluble than oxygen
  20. 20what does low iron levels meannot enough iron means low energy levels
  21. 21what happens when exercising with your respiratory systemwhen exercising your body wants to make more ATP - you are using ATP to exercise
    making more ATP uses more oxygen and releases more carbon dioxide so you breath more/heavier
  22. 22what happens when exercising to your excretory systemwhen exercising cellular respiration increases - waste heat produced and therefore body temp increases so the body sweats - loss of water and minerals, ions etc - water and ion levels are regulated by kidneys
  23. 23what do kidneys eliminateammonia, urea and aric acid - toxic wastes
    and excess water and ions
  24. 24pathway of air (in order)nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
  25. 25kidneysnormal humans have two located at the back of the abdomen
    fist shaped/sized
  26. 26renal cortexthe outer layer of kidney, blood filtration occurs here, contains millions of nephrons
  27. 27renal medullainner layer of the kidney, composed of many vascular tissue (capillaries etc) - dark because of a lot of blood
  28. 28renal pelviswhere filtrate pools and is passes to the ureter
  29. 29renal arteryunfiltered blood enters the kidney
  30. 30renal veinfiltered blood leaves the kidney
  31. 31what is the function of the circulatory system-connects every body system together
    -carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
    -carries heat and warms the body
    moves nutrients throughout the body so anabolic and catabolic reactions can occur within body cells
    - carries wastes away from body cells (ex. urea, nitrogen etc)
    -carries hormones that are specialized messenger chemicals secreted by endochrine glands
    -carries the bodies defence cells, part of the immune system
    -maintains ph balance
    - maintains water balance
  32. 32arteries: composition- circular in diameter
    - made of 3 distinct layers
    inner and outer layers: made of connective tissue, helps integrate blood vessels with the surrounding tissue, acts like an anchor
    Middle layers: made of smooth muscle tissue (these muscles can expand (dilate) and contract to adjust the diameter of the artery), made up of elastic connective tissue which allows arteries to expand without tearing
  33. 33arteries: function/what happens as the heart pumpscarry blood away from the heart
    -when the heart contracts blood surges into the arteries under high pressure - elasticity of arteries prevents them from bursting
    - when the heart relaxes the pressure drops and the elastic fibers in the arteries recoil
    -as blood flows through the arteries and further from the heart it branches into smaller blood vessels called arterioles
  34. 34why do you feel your pulseyou feel your pulse due to changes in the diameter of your arteries
  35. 35arteriolessmaller versions of arteries
  36. 36where do arteries leadmajor arteries typically lead to major areas of the body or even specific organs
    -once blood reaches the area it branches into smaller specific areas via the arterioles
  37. 37capillaries: compositioncomposed of a single layer of cells
    -diameter is so small that red blood cells flow through in single file (diameter of less than 0.005mm)
    -between 0.4mm and 1mm in length
    -very fragile
    -easily destroyed by high blood pressure or a sudden impact - which causes bruising
  38. 38capillaries: functionsites of fluid and gas exchange between blood an body cells - because they are so thin
    -water soluble ions and vitamins pass through spaces in the walls of capillaries by diffusion
    - the size of the spaces determines how permeable the capillary is
    - proteins can also be exchanged but this process is not believed to involve diffusion, it is likely it involves some sort of active transport
  39. 39colour of bloodoxygenated blood appears red in colour
    deoxygenated blood appears blue-purple in colour
  40. 40veins: composition- ovular in diameter
    -typically larger than arteries (except the aorta)
    -contain one way valves
    other than this veins are very similar to arteries
  41. 41veins: funtion-carry blood from the capillaries back to the heart
    blood flows from the capillaries into venules and veins
    -eventually blood will flow back to the heart
  42. 42venulessmaller veins
  43. 43on way valves in veins- only open up to allow blood flow towards the heart - blood is only allowed to move in one direction
    - blood is prevented from "falling" down the vein by the valves
    - as you move your muscles, the muscles squeeze the veins and force blood towards the heart - why some people faint after standing awhile - less blood to the lungs to get oxygen and lack of oxygen to the brain causes you to faint
  44. 44controlling blood flowblood must be directed to different areas of the body under varying circumstances
    -for example: after eating blood flow to the digestive tract is increased - allows for absorption of nutrients - during periods of low digestion there is low blood flow to the digestive tract
    --you never completely turn off blood flow to any given area of the body
  45. 45vasoconstrictionreduces the diameter of the artery - which will reduce blood flow through the artery
    -caused by nerve impulses that cause the smooth muscles in arteries to contract
  46. 46autonomic nervous systemcontrols motor nerves that maintain equilibrium by regulating arterial diameter
    -nerve impulses cause the smooth muscles in arteries to contract
    -controls motor nerves that maintain equilibrium by regulating precapillary sphincter muscles
  47. 47vasodilationincreases the diameter of the artery which will increase blood flow through the artery
    -caused by the relaxation of the smooth muscles which causes the arteries to dilate (get bigger)
  48. 48precapillary sphincter musclescontrolled by motor nerves
    -if narrowed blood flow will be lowed to that area or organ
    - if muscles relaxed (widened) blood flow will increase to that area
  49. 49atherosclerosis: what is it? how does it form?the formation of plaques in the arteries
    -leads to the narrowing and hardening of the artery
    - plaques are formed from the build up of LDLs (not good fats) in the blood stream
    - LDLs will eventually clump together and become anchored to the wall of the artery
    -calcium and other minerals will deposit on top of the lipids and harden the plaque
  50. 50atherosclerosis: why is it dangerous- narrowing of the artery will reduce blood flow to that affected area and increase blood pressure
    - if artery becomes completely blocked it will stop blood flow to that area
    -in some cases the artery will burst due to pressure build up
    -either way blood will stop flowing to the area and it will not receive oxygen or nutrients - cells in affected area could die
    - if it happens in the heart it can cause chest pain or a heart attack
    - most common form of a group of disorders called arteriosclerosis
  51. 51aneurysum- a bulge that forms in the wall of a weakened blood vessel, usually an artery because the pressure in highest in arteries
    -often due to atherosclerosis
    -after prolonged stress due to high blood pressure the walls of the arteries become stretched and thinner
    -eventually the blood vessle will rupture (most dangerous) - if it happens in the brain it could cause a stroke - if it happens in the heart it could cause a heart attack
  52. 52what creats blood pressure-when blood is pumped from the heart to the arteries a large fluid pressure is created- blood pressure
  53. 53tracking blood pressureblood pressure decreases as the blood moves further away from the heart- there is more volume in the arterioles/capillaries etc than in the main artery
    - blood entering the venus (vein) side of the capillaries has a very low blood pressure- which causes problem as there is not enough blood pressure to overcome the effects the gravity and return to the heart (one way valves help with this)
  54. 54varicose veins-created when large pools of blood cause the veins to distend, eventually damaging the valves (must occur repeatedly over years)
    -the damage makes it even harder to return blood back to the heart
    - puts strain on circulatory system which can lead to increased heart rate and blood pressure
    -people who are very inactive or who have poor circulation are at risk of developing this disorder
  55. 55preventing friction in the heartsurrounded by fluid filled membrane called the pericardium (envelope that surrounds the heart) - the fluid bathes the heart, preventing friction between the outer wall and the pericardium
  56. 56the heart (pump)is a muscle pump
    - consists of two parallel pumps that are synchronized (muscle contractions on the left side mirror those on the right)
    -pumps are separated by the septum
    -left pump/side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and sends oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
    the right pump/side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs
  57. 57the heart chambersthe heart is made up of 4 chambers
    -2 atria (atrium singular)
    -2 ventricles
    -each atria is a thin walled (not so muscley) chamber that collects blood from veins
    - each ventricle is a thick walled (muscley) chamber that receives blood from its atria and pumps it into a major artery
    - each pump/side has 1 atrium and 1 ventricle
  58. 58pulmonary circulatory system-goes to the lungs, deposits carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen
    -right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood out the pulmonary trunk
    - pulmonary trunk splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries
    - blood goes through capillary beds in the lungs and comes back to the heart oxygenated
    -blood reenters the heart on the left side by collecting in the left atrium
  59. 59systemic circulatory system-has oxygen, going to pump it to the body
    - left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood out the aorta
    -the coronary arteries are the first arteries branching off the aorta
    -blood goes through capillary beds in various organs and tissues in the body and comes back to the heart deoxygenated
    - blood then reenters the heart on the right side by collecting in the right atrium
  60. 60aorta-largest artery in the body
    -very flexible which allows it to expand with the high blood pressure exerted when blood pumps into it from the heart (left ventricle)
    -when heart relaxes, aorta relaxes and squeezes blood down the arteries
  61. 61coronary arteries- first arteries branching off from the aorta
    - supply the heart tissue with oxygen and nutrients - if too little oxygen reaches the heart angina (chest pains) occur -- first warning of a heart attack
    -blocked coronary artery are bypassed by surgically grafting a vein from another part of the body (in severe situations)
  62. 62detecting coronary artery blockageexternal symptoms - inability to sustain physical activity - rapid breathing - general lack of energy
    - these symptoms are not exact and can indicate other circulatory and respiratory diseases
    -- cardiac catheterization - a small this hallow tube (catheter) is inserted into a groin artery and pushed up to the aorta
    - a dye (visible on x-ray film) is injected into a coronary artery
    - dye travels through blood vessels while being tracked by a fluoroscope
    -blockage is easily pinpointed
  63. 63heart valves-heart has one way valves to prevent back flow and ensure one way blood flow
    Atrioventricular (AV) valves: - separate the atria from their respective ventricles
    - prevents blood from flowing back into the atria when the ventricle is squeezed
    - supported by bands of connective tissue called chordae tendinac
    Semilunar Valves: - separate the ventricles from their respective arteries
    - prevent blood that has been pumped into the arteries from being pushed back into the ventricles
  64. 64cardiac muscle- striated in appearance
    - displays a branching pattern
    - able to contract without nervous stimulation - cardiac muscle with this ability is called myogenic muscle
  65. 65the SA nodethe sinoatrial (SA) node: -sets the heart tempo or rate
    - hearts natural pacemaker
    -usually between 70-80 beats per minute
    - located towards the top right atrium
    - initiates the electrical impulse that causes both atria to contract - the electrical impulse conducts through the cardiac muscle in the atria causing them to contract - contraction of the atria causes blood to be pushed into their respective ventricles
  66. 66the atrioventricular (AV) nodes- electrical impulse from the SA node conducts towards the AV node
    - the Av node conducts the electrical impulse down two large nerve fibres called pukinje fibres - pukinje fibres run through the septum towards the bottom of each ventricle
    - once the electrical impulse reaches the bottom of each ventricle it travels up the walls of each ventricle causing them to contract
    - the electrical impulse terminates after it reaches the top of each ventricle
  67. 67the autonomic nervous system (ANS)- regulates the tempo set by the SA node
    2 branches of ANS
    1. sympathetic nervous system - initiated by stress - increases heart rate
    2. Parasympathetic nervous system - decreases heart rate - used to bring heart rate back to normal - during times of relaxation the parasympathetic nerves are stimulated to slow the heart rate
  68. 68heart sounds (terms)- systole - a period of heart contraction - atrial systole is the contraction of the atria - ventricular systole is the contraction of the ventricles
    - diastole - a period of heart relaxation - atrial diastole is the relaxation of the atria - ventricular diastole is the relaxation of the ventricles
  69. 69the sequence of events of heart contractions- atrial systole (atria contract)
    - atrial diastole (atria relax) and ventricular systole (ventricles contract) -- the increase in pressure in the ventricles cause the AV valve to close, the "lubb" sound you hear
    - ventricular diastole (ventricles relax) -- increased pressure in the arteries causes the "dubb" sound you hear
  70. 70electrocardiographs (ECGs)- map electrical fields within the heart
    - a normal heart beat makes distinct features on an ECG
    P-wave: contraction of the atria
    QRS-wave: contraction of the ventricles
    T-wave: ventricle recovery
  71. 71medications and the heart- counter pressure/stress on the heart
    Digitalis- initiates strong regular heart contractions
    Nitroglycerin- relaxes smooth muscles and dilates blood vessels - this reduces blood pressure and decreases stress on the heart
    Beta-Blockers- block epinephrine (a hormone) from stimulating muscle contraction -- 2 types
    Beta-1 blockers- reduces speed and strength of heart contractions- decreases blood pressure
    Beta-2 Blockers- relaxes blood vessels- decreases blood pressure
  72. 723 key factors of populationssize (number if individuals in an area), density (measurement of population per unit area), population dispersion (the spacing of organisms relative to each other)
  73. 73how do you affect population density- immigration (movement of individuals into a population)
    -emigration (movement of individuals out of a population)
    - density dependent factors (biotic factors that have an increasing effect as population size increases)
    - density independent factors (abiotic factors in the environment that affect populations regardless of the density)
  74. 74open populationwhen all four factors are present
  75. 75closed populationwhen only birth and mortality are present (zoos, isolated communities like islands, etc)
  76. 76how to populations grow- exponential growth (population keeps getting bigger over time)
    - logistic growth ( phases - slow growth, rapid growth, reaches a carrying capacity, then steady growth where a dynamic equilibrium is achieved (the increase = the decrease in population))
  77. 77carrying capacitythe max population size that can be supported by the available resources - there can only be as many organisms as the environment can support - can be limited by limited food, accumulating waste, increasing competition etc)
  78. 78density dependent factorsbiotic factors that have an increasing effect as population size increases
    - parasitism
    - competition
    - predation
    - available food
  79. 79density independent factorsabiotic factors in the environment that affect populations regardless of the density
    -weather/temperature
    -natural disasters
  80. 80stages of a growth curve1.leg phase (the delay before a population enters a phase of rapid growth)
    2. growth phase (population increases at fastest rate)
    3. stationary growth (when birth rates equal death rates)
    4. death phase (when mortality exceeds birth rates because nutrients are depleted/waste buildup/predation)
  81. 81biotic potentialthe theoretical maximum birth rate
    - takes into account: offspring (max number per birth), capacity for survival (chances they will reach the age of reproduction), procreation (the number of times per year the organism reproduces), maturity (the age at which reproduction can begin)
  82. 82environmental resistanceall the factors that limit population growth (can be biotic or abiotic)
    - effects the carrying capacity of the population
  83. 83k- selected populationsfound in stable environmental conditions and are characterized by intense intraspecific competitor (young are susceptible to change and typically die)
  84. 84r- selected populationsfound in environments undergoing change which cannot be predicted, characterized by high birth rates and short life spans
  85. 85what is biodiversitythe variety of life on earth- includes all living things including plants, animals, micro-organisms and their unique characteristics
  86. 86three levels of biodiversity1. ecosystem diversity (the variety of habitats, living communities and ecological processes)
    2. species diversity (the variety of species in an area)
    3. Genetic diversity (the diversity of the characteristics within a species)
  87. 87why is biodiversity important-ecosystems depend on the combined contributions and interactions of the individual organisms within them
    -the loss of any species can prevent that ecosystem from functioning optimally
    - an ecosystem with a high level of biodiversity is more resistant to environmental changes
    - biodiversity provides us with food, materials and medicines
    - biodiversity provides us with mechanisms that regulate the air, quality of our water, and climate
  88. 88biodiversity indexa particular way of measuring biodiversity - no single way to measure this will always be appropriate
  89. 89species richnessmost common type of biodiversity
    - the number of species in a particular place
  90. 90species evennessthe extent to which individuals are distributed evenly among species - gives you info about the relative quantities of proportions of individuals belonging to different species
  91. 91Simpsons indexcombines measures of species richness and species evenness in a single number- bigger the number the bigger the diversity
  92. 92acid rain- from pollution
    - ph of rain is lower and therefore more acidic causing damage to plants
    -starts eating through/ burning plant leaves/roots
    -pH is outside range of tolerance levels so plants die- same with fish/animals
  93. 93eutrophicationtoo much nitrogen (too much fertilizer) - happens in water ecosystems
    -algae grows and creates a blanket on water
    -plants below cannot get sun so they die
    -bacteria (decomposers) multiply due to excess food and use up the oxygen in water
    - other biotic organisms die due to lack of oxygen
  94. 94biomassthe mass of the dried material - with no water in it
  95. 95law of minimumthe lowest possible level of each nutrient that a plant must have in order to survive regardless if other nutrients are in excess - affects the development of the plant
  96. 96tolerance levelsthe range of nutrient concentration (upper and lower level of nutrients) that will support natural development
  97. 97Selfords law of tolerancestates that too much or too little of an essential factor is harmful to an organism
  98. 98ingestionthe taking in of nutrients
  99. 99digestionbreakdown of complex organic molecules into smaller components by enzymes
  100. 100absorptionthe transport of digested nutrients to the cells of the body
  101. 101egestionthe removal of waste from the body
  102. 102physical/ mechanical digestioninvolves the mechanical (physical) breakdown of food ex. chewing
    - breaks food into smaller pieces which increases the surface area for chemical digestion
  103. 103chemical digestioninvolves the breakdown of food by enzyme catalyzed reactions
  104. 104what happens in the mouth (digestive system)where ingestion occurs
    -where physical/mechanical digestion begins
    physical digestion: teeth and chewing motion (incisors cut, molars crush)
    chemical digestion: salivary glands produce saliva, a watery fluid
    -saliva lubricates food so it can be swallowed easily
    -saliva dissolves food particles so it can be tasted
    -saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase - which begins the digestion of starches (a polysaccharide) - long polysaccharides are partially broken down into smaller polysaccharides
    -once food is chewed, the tongue forms it into a bolus
    the moist bolus is swallowed and moves through the pharynx into the esophagus
    -swallowing and egestion (removing wastes) are the only voluntary movements of the digestive tract
  105. 105esophagusonce food enters and stretches the walls of the esophagus - involuntary movement of food begins- it sets off peristalsis (rhythmic contractions that physically pushes food down the esophagus and into the stomach
  106. 106stomach: compositionj-shaped with many ridges to allow the stomach to expand and contract
    - can store up to approx. 1.5L of food
    -made up of three layers of muscle that move in different directions to churn the food (physical/mechanical digestion)
    -lines by a layer of alkaline mucus that prevents the stomach from being digested by the enzymes in it
    -entrance is controlled by the lower esophageal sphincter- prevents food and acid form bring regurgitated back up into the esophagus - controls passage of food from esophagus to stomach
    -exit from the stomach is controlled by the pyloric sphincter- controls passage of food from the stomach to the small intestine- allows body to control digestion
  107. 107stomach: chemical composition-stomach secretions are called gastric juices, they contain:
    - hydrochloric acid (HCl) - responsible for maintaining a pH between 1 and 3 - low pH helps kill bacteria and other harmful substances
    - mucus- thick alkaline fluid that sticks to the walls of the stomach - helps prevent digestion of stomach walls by stomach acid and enzymes
    - pepsinogens - converted to their active form pepsin by hydrochloric acid - the pH created by the HCl changes the shape of the enzyme (pepsinogens) allowing it to function properly - pepsin breaks ling proteins into smaller polypeptides (protein parts) - cells produce pepsinogens instead of the pepsin directly because otherwise the pepsin would break down the proteins in the cell, destroying it
  108. 108chymewhat food is called when it is mixed with the gastric juices of the stomach
  109. 109small intestine: composition3 sections:
    - Duodenum - where majority of digestion occurs - where secretions from the pancreas and gallbladder are dumped into
    - Jejunum - largest section- absorption of most nutrients
    - Ileum - final absorption of nutrients- re-absorption of bile salts
    - has design features to increase the surface area to better allow to reabsorb nutrients
    -villi: long fingerlike projections that extend into the small intestine - increase SA up to ten times
    - microvilli: fine threadlike extensions of the membrane of each villus - also increase SA
    - each villus is surrounded by a capillary network - all water soluble nutrients and absorbed into the capillary network - nutrients absorbed by the capillaries will now be circulated throughout the body by the circulatory system
    - each villus is surrounded by lacteals - lacteals are a part of the lymphatic system - fats are absorbed by lacteals
  110. 110protecting the small intstine-as chyme enters the duodenum it is soaked in HCl and pepsin - is the HCl is not neutralized (when HCl is neutralized it neutralizes the pepsin as well) the small intestine would be damaged by the low pH
    the sequence of events that protects the small intestine:
    1. prosecretin (already in the duodenum) in converted into secretin by the HCl
    2. secretin in then absorbed into the bloodstream and eventually reaches the pancreas
    3. the pancreas responds by releasing a solution containing bicarbonate ions into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct
    5. the bicarbonate ions neutralize the HCl increasing the pH to around 9
  111. 111large intestine (colon)- chemical digestion is completed before remaining food enters the large intestine
    - stores wastes long enough to adsorb or reabsorb remaining water and some inorganic salts, minerals, and vitamins
    -houses bacteria like E.coli - they use our waste to make vitamins B and K - these vitamins are then absorbed into our body
  112. 112pancreatic secretions- bicarbonate ions - neutralize stomach acids an maintain a pH of 9 (in the small intestine)
    - trypsinogen - activated into trypsin in the duodenum by an enzyme enterokinase - trypsin breaks long-chain polypeptides into short chain polypeptides (protein)
    -Erepsins - complete protein digestion by breaking down short chain polypeptides into individual amino acids
    - pancreatic amylase - continues carbohydrate digestion - breaks down intermediate sized carbohydrate chains into disaccharides (maltase, lactase, and sucrase)
    - lipases - pancreatic lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol - phospholipase breaks down physpholipids (phosophilipds are in the lipid (fat) group)
  113. 113main function of the liver-continuously produces bile -bile contains bile salts which help emulsify fats (emulsify means make a mixture of two normally non mixable liquids) - when bile emulsifies the fats it increases the surface area of fats (physical digestion) - aids fat digestion by lipases
  114. 114other functions of the liver(breakdown/conversion, storage, detoxification)
    - removes amino group (toxic) from amino acids forming urea
    -breaks down blood cells and convert the toxic component of hemoglobin (eventually excreted with bile salts, give feces its typical brown colour)
    - converts glycogen to glucose and vice versa
    stores glycogen and vitamins A, B12, D
    converts harmful compounds such as alcohol to less harmful products - alcoholism can lead to cirrhosis of the liver
  115. 115gallbladderstores bile
    -when there are fats in the small intestine a hormone called cholecystokinin is released and carried by blood
    - when CCK reaches the gallbladder it triggers it to release bile
  116. 116gallstoneslike a kidney stone
    -can form when there is too much cholesterol in the diet
    - cholesterol (which is insoluble) acts as a binding agent for the salt crystals in bile
    - too much cholesterol can cause the crystals to precipitate and form larger crystals called gallstones
    - can block the bile duct, impairing fat digestion causing considerable pain
    - can cause jaundice (yellow skin)
  117. 117breakdown of carbohydrates1st- in the mouth- salivary amylase from salivary glands breaks long polysaccharides into smaller polysaccharides
    2nd- duodenum (small intestine) - pancreatic amylase from the pancreas breaks intermediate sized carbohydrates (polysacchrides) into disaccharides
    3rd- duodenum (small intestine) - disacchridases (maltase, lactase, sucrase) (enzymes) - secreted by small intestine - completes carbohydrate digestion
  118. 118breakdown of proteins1st - stomach -pepsin - breaks proteins into smaller polypeptides (protein parts)
    2nd - small intestine ( duodenum) - trypsin from trypsinogen from pancreas - breaks long-chain polypeptides into short-chain polypeptides
    3rd - small intestine (duodenum)- erepsins from pancreas - completes protein digestion by breaking down short chain polypepsides into individual amino acids
  119. 119breakdown of lipids (fats)1st- duodenum (small intestine) - bile salts from bile made in liver stored in gallbladder- help emulsify fats (mix non mixable liquids/break up) - increases surface area of fats
    2nd- duodenum (small intestine) - pancreatic lipase (lipases) from the pancreas - breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
    phospholipase breaks down phospholipids
    fats are absorbed by lacteals surrounding each villus in the small intestine
  120. 120composition of bloodabout 55% fluid and 45% body cells
    fluid - plasma fluid portion of blood and is 90% water other 10% is blood proteins, glucose, vitamins, minerals, dissolved gases and waste
  121. 121erythrocytes- red blood cells - carry oxygen to blood cells and are enucleated (don't have a nucleus) so there is room for hemoglobin
  122. 122hemoglobin- a red pigment found in red blood cells that improves blood's ability to carry oxygen (when blood cell gives up oxygen it changes shape)
  123. 123anemialow levels of hemoglobin or poor red blood cell production
    - individuals with anemia will have low energy
    - could be caused by diet or hemorrhaging
  124. 124erythropoiesisthe process by which red blood cells are made in the bone marrow - they start out as stem cells
    - blood cell production will increase when blood oxygen in low - exercise - high altitude- hemorrhage (an escape of blood from a ruptured blood vessel)
  125. 125leukocyteswhite blood cells, do not have a nucleus - for every 1 white blood cell there are approx. 700 red blood cells
  126. 126diapedisiswhite blood cell can squeeze through capillaries
  127. 127pusleftover proteins
  128. 128phagocytosissome white blood cells can destroy invaders (microbes) by engulfing them - an enzyme in released to destroy the white blood cells and microbe
  129. 129what do platelets doinitiate blood clotting, no nucleus - when platelets strike a rough surface (torn blood vessel) it relaxes thromboplastin protein - that and calcium activates prothrombin (plasma protein) an fibrinogen is produced from the liver - prothrombin is converted to thrombin by thromboplastin - thrombin converts fibrogen to fibrin threads - fibrin threads wrap around damaged area sealing the cut with a clot
  130. 130thrombusa clot that seals an entire blood vessel
  131. 131embolusa dislodged blood clot that is carried to organs
  132. 132antigen (blood)marker on red blood cell acts as an antigen and stimulates formation of antibodies
  133. 133antibodiesproteins formed in the blood that react with antigens - antibodies will attach to antigen marker and cause the blood to clump if the antigen is different than the individual's blood type (foreign invader)
  134. 134agglutinationwhen an antigen is mixed with corresponding antibody, blood will clump
  135. 135blood transfusionsA can only receive blood from A or O
    B can only receive blood from B or O
    AB is the universal recipient of blood, can receive blood from A, B or O because it does not have any antibodies because it has both A and B antigen/markers
    O can only receive blood from O but is the universal donor because it doesn't have antigen markers so antibodies won't build up against it
  136. 136rhesus factor- another blood antigen marker called RH+ (whose who have the antigen) and RH- (those who don't have the antigen)
    RH- can donate to RH+ but can not receive RH+ because antibodies will build up
  137. 137the sequence of events of exhalation1- high levels of carbon dioxide are detected by nervous system receptors
    2- diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax
    3- rib cage moves down and in; diaphragm returns to normal position
    4- air pressure in thoracic cavity increases
  138. 138What happens in agglutination? (why can it be deadly)in agglutination (when an antigen in mixed with corresponding antibody) the blood will clump. it can be deadly because it could stop blood flow.
  139. 139an individual who has no antigens attaches to the membrane of their RBC are referred to as what blood type?blood type O
  140. 140what are the y shaped proteins that bind to protein markers on the surface of cells?antibodies
  141. 141blood types and their antigens/antibodiestype A has A antigens and anti-B antibody
    type B has B antigens and anti-A antibody
    type AB has A and B antigens and no antibody
    type O has no antigens and both antibodies
  142. 142taxonomythe branch of biology that deals with the classification of life forms
  143. 143the 6 kingdoms1. Archaebacteria (most ancient primitive bacteria)
    2. Eubacteria (most common type of bacteria)
    3. Protista (unicellular organisms that have a more advanced larger type of cell compared to bacteria)
    4. fungi (hetertropic multi-cellular organisms whose cells possess a cell wall ex mushrooms)
    5. plantae (autotrophis multi-cellular organisms whose cells possess a cell wall ex. trees)
    6. animalia (heterotrophic multi-cellular organisms whose cells do not have a cell wall)
  144. 144levels of taxonomic classification1. Domain
    2. Kingdom
    3. Phylum
    4. Class
    5. Order
    6. family
    7. Genus
    8. Species
  145. 145binomial nomenclatureclassifying a life form- both the genus name and species name
    genus name with a capital letter and both italicized
  146. 146dichotomous keya book with a series of choices made to lead to a new branch and eventually an answer
  147. 147the phylumporifera
    cnidaria
    platyhelminthes
    annelida
    arthropoda
    arthropoda (terrestrial)
    mollusca
    echinoderms
    chordata
  148. 148poriferaex. sponges
    oldest phylum in the animal kingdom
    asymmetrical
    filter water to obtain food
  149. 149cnidaria(n)ex. jelly fish
    first to have movement
    nerve and muscle tissue
    mouth and a stomach
  150. 150platyhelminthesex. flatworms
    first hunters- first to move with a purpose
    stereo senses - paired senses (like ears and eyes) that are on both sides of the head allowing an object to be located accurately
  151. 151annelidaex. ringed/segmented worms
    have segmentation that allows them to separate regions of their body
    continuous gut running from mouth to anus
    complete circulatory system
  152. 152arthropodaex. crabs/crustaceans
    first to have jointed limbs
    incredible diversity due to evolution of various types of appendages (antennae, claws, wings, mouth parts)
    arthropods first appeared in the sea but were the first animal group to invade land and take to the skies - they habit nearly every niche on earth
  153. 153molluscaex. snails
    calcium shell
    or speed (squid)
    have a muscular foot
  154. 154echinodermsex. sea star/urchant/cucumber
    either stationary or moving, live only in the ocean
    have 5 part symmetry without a head, eyes or centralized brain
    fluid filled system that hydraulically operates hundreds of tube feet
  155. 155chordataex. snakes, fish, apes. humans
    have a notochord and a dorsal nerve cord
  156. 156what are fungi- molds, yeast, mushrooms
    - eukaryotic (membrane bound nucleus), heterotrophs that have a cell wall
    - cell walls contain chitin, a complex carbohydrate
  157. 157form and function of fungi- made up of thin filaments called hyphae (small units of fungi) - each hyphae is only one cell thick
    - the bodies of multi-cellular fungi are composed of many hyphae tangled together in a thick mass called a mycelium
    adapted for two main functions: absorption of nutrients and reproduction
  158. 158reproduction of fungi- asexual and sexual
    -asexual reproduction occurs when hyphae break off and begin to grow on their own - some fungi produce spores, which scatter and grow, in some fungi spores are produced in structures called sporangia (tips of specialized hyphae called sporangiophores)
    - sexual reproduction- the fusion of two nuclei when two sex cells unite, the joining produces spores that can grow into new organisms
  159. 159the importance/role of fungi-fungi are part of natures recycling system
    - they transform complex organic substances into raw materials that other fungi and plants can use for growth
  160. 160beneficial fungiyeast is used to make bread, wine and beer
    penicillum produces antibiotics
  161. 161harmful fungifungi can cause athletes foot and ringworm
    death cap mushroom is the most dangerous mushroom
  162. 162lichens- combo of blue-green algae and fungus growing together
    - fungus provides algae with water and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
    - algae provides carbohydrates to fungus
    -this is mutualism, a symbiotic relationship
  163. 163why are lichens good indicators of air qualitybecause they absorb water from the air- they will absorb the toxin substances from the air- will die if the air is unsafe or too polluted
  164. 164compare and contrast plants and fungiPlants:
    -have one nucleus per cell
    - most are autotrophs
    - most have roots
    - cellulose in cell walls
    Fungi:
    - can have many nuclei in one cell
    -heterotrophs
    - no roots
    - chitin in cell walls
    Both:
    - eukaryotic cells
    - cell walls
    - most anchored in soil or another surface
    - reproduction can be sexual, asexual, or both
    - stationary
  165. 165the role of plants-the producers of every food chain (base of each food chain)
    -plants carry out photosynthesis producing organic compounds (glucose) from inorganic compounds (water and carbon dioxide) - most important part of plants
    -the plant uses glucose as a source of energy but much of this glucose is passed up the food chain - herbivores eat plants carnivores eat herbivores, therefore plants produce glucose that is passed to the next steps of the food chain
    -plants also provide oxygen for animals and shelters and nesting sites (breaking the wind)
  166. 166what is a plant- plants are members of the kingdom plantae
    - all plants are multi-cellular and are composed of eukaryotic cells
    -all plants have cell walls composed of cellulose (a sugar thing)
    - all plants carry out photosynthesis using the green pigments chlorophylls a and b
  167. 167traits of the truly terrestrial plants1. land plants have alteration of generations
    2. land plants have multi-cellular gametangia (sex organs)
    3. land plants have walled spores produced in sporangia - the spores have walls that are tough and resistant to harsh environments
    4. land plants have apical meristems
    5. land plants have vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
    6. land plants have nonmotile gametes (gametes not able to move around) - the gametes have no water to swim through so they must be carried by some other means (pollination/seed dispersal)
    7. land plants must have a root system - for anchorage and support- for absorption of water and minerals
    8. land plants must have protection from drying out- usually accomplished by a thick cuticle or bark
  168. 168alternation of generationsalternation between a sexual and asexual phase within the same life cycle
    the complete life cycle of a plant, where the haploid stage produces gametes and the diploid stage produces spores
  169. 169apical meristemsregions at the tips of all roots and shoots of land plants
    - they are responsible for the primary growth, which lengthens shoots and root throughout the life of the plant - since rate of cell division is rapid, the stems and roots are continuously elongating
    - stems grow upward an roots grow downward continuously
  170. 170vascular tissue of the plantvascular tissue is needed to carry water from the roots to the leaves and to carry food from the leaves to the roots
    - xylem: carries water up the plant
    - Phloem: carries food down the plant
  171. 171classification of land plants1. vascular plants (tracheophytes) or nonvascular plants (bryophytes)
    - tracheophytes are the true land plants
    - bryophytes are "in-between" plants - they are still tied to a watery existence - do not have vascular tissue and are not suited well to life on land- have a hard time moving water and nutrients so they don't grow tall (more height longer travel to transport food)
    2. tracheophytes are further subdivided into "seed plants" and "seedless plants"
    - seed plants produce seeds
    - seedless plants do not produce seeds (ferns)
    3. seed plants are divided into angiosperms and gymnosperms
    -angiosperms are flowering plants
    - gymnosperms are cone-bearing plants
    4. angiosperms are divided into monocots and dicots
    corn is a monocot
    oak trees are dicots
  172. 172gymnosoerms"naked seed"
    -most ancient surviving seed plants
    -include conifers such as pines and spruces
    -the cone is the seed bearing structure and all the seeds are exposed
    -many gymnosperms have adaptations that make them better suited to a dry environment
    -the leaves are flat, thin, needles- reduces SA of leaf and lowers water loss
    -needles have a thick waxy cuticle that prevents water loss from the heat
    -has a "sunken stromata" - the stromata (pores that allow for gas exchange) are located in cavities below the surface of the leaf - reduces water loss
  173. 173angiosperms-flowering plants
    -bear their seeds within a layer of tissue that protects the seed
    - include grasses and flowering trees and shrubs
  174. 174adaptions in seed plants that allow reproduction without water- flowers or cones
    -the transfer of sperm by pollination
    -the protection of embryos within seeds
  175. 175seed plants have...pollen, pollination and seeds
  176. 176pollenthe entire male gametophyte is contained within the pollen grain
    - pollen grains contain sperm cells
    -rather than the sperm swimming through water the pollen (sperm) is carried to the female gametophyte by wind, insects, or small animals
  177. 177pollinationis the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive structures to the female reproductive structures
  178. 178seedsa seed consists of an embryo and a food supply that is enclosed inside a protective outer covering
    - the plant embryo is diploid (full set of genetic information) and is in the early developmental stage of the sporophyte plant
    - the seed contains a food supply that nourishes the embryo - this food supply sustains the embryo until the seed has sprouted and grown enough to become fully photosynthetic
    - the outer coat of a seed surrounds and protects the embryo and keeps the contents of the seed from drying out
    - the embryo remains in a dormant stage within the seed for weeks, months, or even years
    - the seed can survive long periods of bitter cold, extreme heat, or drought
    - when growing conditions become favorable the seed germinates and begins to grow
  179. 179sporophyterefers to a stage in a plants life cycle in which ells have a diploid nuclei
  180. 180angiosperms method of reproduction- they have the development of the flower as the reproductive structure
    -flowers are an evolutionary advantage because they attract insects and animals who then transport pollen from one flower to another
    - this means of pollination is much more efficient than the wind pollination of most gymnosperms
    -flowers contain ovaries, which surround and protect the seeds
    - after pollination the ovary develops into a fruit which protects the seed and aids in dispersal
    - flower dies after the seed is produced/pollinated/grows
    -fruit aids in seed dispersal by attracting animals to the fruit (animals eat the fruit, seed survives and excreted far away from parent plant)
    - the fruit is a wall of tissue surrounding the seed
  181. 181pistilfemale parts of the flower
    - stigma, style, ovary, ovule
  182. 182stamenmale parts of the flower
    - covered in pollen
    - anther (contains pollen), filament
  183. 183cuticle(in plants) a layer of non-cellular material secreted by epidermal cells designed to protect plants from drying out
  184. 184gametophytea stage in a plants life cycle where cells have a haploid nuclei
  185. 185haploidrefers to the number of chromosomes in a gamete
  186. 186diploidrefers to twice the number of chromosomes in a gamete
  187. 187cotyledona seed leaf that stores carbohydrates for the seedling and often is the 1st photosynthetic organ of a seedling
  188. 188monocotsangiosperms which have one seed leaf
  189. 189dicotsangiosperms which have two seed leaves
  190. 190cell theory1. all organisms are composed of one or more cells
    2. the cell is the basic unit of life in all living things
    3. all cells are produced by the diversion of preexisting cells
  191. 191protoplasmthe entire contents of a cell, the protoplasm includes the nucleus and the cytoplasm
  192. 192chromosomeslong threads of genetic material found in the nucleus of cells
  193. 193genesections of a chromosome, each contains one set of instructions
  194. 194nucleolusa small spherical structure located inside the nucleus
  195. 195RNA (ribonucleic acid)a single- stranded genetic messenger that carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
  196. 196semipermeable membranea barrier that allows some molecules to pass through, but prevents other molecules from penetrating
  197. 197microtubulesmicroscopic tubular structure present in numbers in the cytoplasm of cells, sometimes forming clusters to form more complex structures
  198. 198flagellamicroscopic whip-like appendage many protoza use to swim
  199. 199ciliatiny hairlike structures found on some cells that sweep foreign debris from the respiratory tract
  200. 200microfilamentssmall rod-like structure present in numbers in the cytoplasm of many eukaryotic cells- help with movement

Information

Description
Grade 11 Biology Flashcards on bio 11 exam , created by Madison Holmes on 30/01/2018.
Created by
Madison Holmes
Views
11
Rating

Feedback

What is it about?

What do you think of the new look?

How do you like it?