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Glycolysis Lecture 2

Afronewtzz Biochemistry Degree English 95 cards

Glycolysis Lecture 2

Cards in this deck (95)

  1. 1What monosaccharides are the following 2 disaccharides made up of? Sucrose and Lactose- Sucrose = Fructose + Glucose
    - Lactose = Galactose + Glucose
  2. 2What enzyme do we have in our liver which breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose?Lactase.
  3. 3Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose - what is different about the 2 fates of these monosaccharides because of their structure?Glucose has its hydroxyl group below the plane of the ring structure, galactose has its hydroxyl group above the plane of the ring structure - the only difference.
    However, this means that glucose can readily enter the glycolytic pathway as a substrate for hexokinase to make Glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis. Whereas, galactose can not undergo this pathway and has a 4 step pathway which allows it to enter glycolysis at the level of glucose-1-phosphate (just before glucose-6-phosphate).
  4. 4What is meant by Galactocaemia?- Child born fine.
    - When they start to ingest milk from their motherr; vomitting and diarrhoea.
    - If NOT clinically diagnosed... can develop cataracts and brain malfunctions as they cannot metabolise the galactose that is liberated from lactose digestion.
    - Thus high levels of galactose in the blood.
    - Clinically diagnosed early = galactose free diet.
  5. 5What happens in the digestion of the dissaccharide sucrose in the body?- Sucrose enzyme digests into 2 monosaccharides fructose and glucose.
    - Glucose feeds into the glycolytic pathway normally.
    - Fructose
  6. 6Where do you metabolise most of the fructose which comes into your diet?Liver
  7. 7When fructose is being broken down in preparation for joining the glycolytic pathway, what is the first stage involved, and by what enzyme?Fructose is phosphorylated by fructokinase (using ATP) into Fructose-1-phosphate.
  8. 8Once Fructose-1-phosphate is formed, what is the next stage in the breaking down of fructose so that it can join the glycolytic pathway?- Fructose-1-phosphate is split into 2 x 3C sugars by an aldolase enzyme...
    - Glyceraldehyde (no phosphate group)
    - Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (phosphate group)
  9. 9How do you then get both Glyceraldehyde and Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (broken down from fructose-1-phosphate) to enter the glycolytic pathway?- Triose Phosphate Isomerase (TIM), extremely efficient enzyme readily converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (as before) so that it can enter the glycolytic pathway.
    - Triose kinase then phosphorylates glyceraldehyde into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate also (using ATP) so that it can also enter the glycolytic pathway.
  10. 10Thus, how many ATPs are used during the entry of fructose into the glycolytic pathway?2 ATPs.
  11. 11Alternative to the fructose-1-phosphate pathway, how else can fructose enter the glycolytic pathway?Via more direct route where it is directly phosphorylated by hexokinase (same enzyme that uses glucose).
  12. 12If there are tissues in the body where glucose levels are LOW, and fructose concnetrations are HIGH, (i.e. adipose tissue not liver tissue) what pathway might fructose take?Fructose may take the hexokinase pathway since the hexokinase's activity is not being utilised by glucose.
  13. 13What is the main structural difference between glucose and mannose?Glucose has its hydroxyl group below the planar ring structure on the number 2 carbon; mannose has its hydroxyl group above the planar ring structure on its number 2C.
  14. 14Describe the pathway which mannose takes in order to enter the glycolytic pathway.- Mannose is phosphorylated by hexokinase into Mannose-6-phosphate (using ATP).
    - Mannose-6-phosphate is then altered in structure by phosphomannose isomerase to Fructose-6-phosphate where it has then entered the glycolytic pathway.
  15. 15What is sucrose most often known as? What does it break down into?Sucrose = Sugar (cane or beet sugar)
    Glucose + Fructose.
  16. 16What is lactose most often known as? What does it break down into?Milk sugar
    Glucose and Galactose
  17. 17What is fructose most often known as?Fruit sugar
  18. 18What is mannose most often known as?Glycoproteins
  19. 19What 2 options do cells have when presented with glycolytic intermediates?- Drive ATP synthesis
    - Use these molecules to store as biomass
  20. 20Irrespective of the sugar coming into the glycolytic pathway, what is always the net amount of ATP?2 x ATPs.
  21. 21Under AEROBIC conditions, the reduced form NADH (produced from reaction 6) can do what?Can go into the mitochondria and donate electrons to the electron transport chain to help synthesise more ATP.
  22. 22Under anaerobic conditions, why is pyruvate converted to lactate with the help of NADH from reaction 6?It helps to balance your redox state of NADH back to NAD+ so that it can be fed back into glycolysis at reaction 6 in order to maintain glycolysis under anaerobic conditions.
  23. 23What is meant by the 'lactate shunt' in the liver?The liver regenerates glucose from lactate in order to maintain glucose levels for glycolysis.
  24. 24What are the 2 primary purposes of the Pentose Phosphate shunt?- Generation of reduced NADPH
    - Generation of ribose sugars.
  25. 25What is the purpose of the generation of the ribose sugars in the pentose phosphate shunt?Go on to nucleotide synthesis.
  26. 26What is the purpose of the generation of the reduced form of NADPH in the pentose phosphate shunt?Lipid biogenesis.
  27. 27Describe the main difference between reduced forms - NADH and NADPH.NADH = Involved in catabolic pathways > Lead to synthesis of ATP in the mitocondria.
    NADPH = Anabolic pathways > Utilised as electron and hybride ion donor for the synthesis of complex molecules.
  28. 28What are the differences in 'R' group between NAD+ and NADP+?NAD+ R Group = H
    NADP+ R Group = PO3^2-    What are the differences in 'R' group between NAD+ and NADP+?
  29. 29In what area of the cells does the pentose phosphate pathway occur, and for what reason?Cytosol.
    For tissues involved in biosynthesis i.e. adipose tissue.
  30. 30Describe the first stage in the pentose phosphate pathway in order to form intermediate 6-phosphoglucolactone from glucose-6-phosphate.Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyses an oxidation/ reduction reaction whereby glucose is oxidised simultaneously to the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH + H+.
  31. 31Describe the second stage in the pentose phosphate pathway in order to form intermediate 6-phosphogluconate from 6-phosphoglucolactone.An isomerase enzyme just alters the structure of 6-phosphogluconate from a ring into a linear chain of 6-phosphogluconate.
  32. 32Describe the third stage in the pentose phosphate pathway in order to form Ribulose-5-phosphate from intermediate 6-phosphogluconate.Enzyme 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase catalyses an oxidation/ reduction whereby 6-phosphogluconate is oxidised and decarboxylated (liberation of carbon dioxide) into Ribulose-5-phosphate simultaenous to the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH + H+.
    - 6C to 5C sugar
  33. 33What is the purpose of phase 2 of the pentose phosphate pathway?To link the pentose phosphate pathway back to the glycolytic pathway.
  34. 34Why might the Pentose Phosphate pathway be a really important process for the cell?- Situation where you need to synthesis lipids and need loads of reduced forms of NADPH.
    - Rich fuel supply; fed state; proliferative state; NOT in starvation mode where you are trying to generate as much energy from the glucose as possible.
    - Glucose rich environment; covert some of these into glycolytic intermediates which will allow you to carry out biosynthesis for proliferation.
    - Taking Glucose-6-phosphate and spinning it through the pentose phosphate pathway 6 times, you can generate 12 NADPH for lipid synthesis.
  35. 35Why can Glucose-6-phosphate only spin through the pentose phosphate pathway 6 times before it is rendered not efficient for the process?Each spin, a carbon dioxide is liberated - there are only 6 carbons in G6P.
    Therefore each spin, 1 carbon is lost and 2 NADPHs are produced... 12 NADPHs overall.
  36. 36How do we control whether Glucose continues down through the glycolytic pathway or is shunted through the pentose phosphate pathway?If the level of NADPH is very low, that means that we need to generate more reduced equivalents.
    Allosteric regulation which senses the ratio of NADP+ : NADPH.
    If NADPH levels are low, then more needs to be generated thus glucose gets shunted through the pentose phosphate pathway.
  37. 37What is the purpose of the Ru5P Epimerase in the Pentose Phosphate Pathway?It catalyses the movement of the 'OH' group in Ribulose-5-Phosphate to change the structural conformation, forming Xu5P.
    Very similar structures.
  38. 38What is the purpose of the Ru5P Isomerase in the Pentose Phosphate Pathway?It catalyses the movement of atoms in Ribulose-5-Phosphate to form a different isomer Ribose-5-Phosphate.
  39. 39What is the purpose of the Transketolase enzyme in the Pentose Phosphate Pathway? Explain for the 2 different moles.Catalyses the 'shunt' of Xu5P's 2C group (CH2OH- C=O) onto another molecule.
    - For 1 of the moles of Xu5P, this group of atoms is removed and shunted onto Ribose-5-Phosphate... forming S7P and Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate/ GAP (the remains).
    - For the other mole of Xu5P, this group of atoms is removed and shunted onto E4P... forming Fructose-6-Phosphate and Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate/ GAP (the remains).
  40. 40What is the purpose of the Transaldolase enzyme in the Pentose Phosphate Pathway?This catalyses the 'shunt' of S7P's 3 carbon group (CH2OH- C=O - HOCH) onto Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate/ GAP... forming E4P (4C - the remains of S7P) and Fructose-6-phosphate (6C).
  41. 41What 3 glycolytic intermediates are formed as a result of the pentose phosphate pathway per cycle?- 2 x Fructose-6-Phosphates.
    - 1 x Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate.
  42. 42Whereabouts in the cell is pyruvate fed into for the TCA Cycle?The mitochondria.
  43. 43What are the two other terms used to describe the TCA cycle?Kreb's cycle.
    Citric Acid Cycle.
  44. 44Why does the citric acid cycle only occur in the presence of oxygen?Because if there is no oxygen, the ETC chain can't run, thus NADH and FADH2 cannot be reverted back to their oxidised form of NAD+ and FADH for the Kreb's cycle to keep running.
  45. 45What enzyme catalyses the conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrial matrix?Pyruvate dehydrogenase.
  46. 46What type of reaction is the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA?Decarboxylation reaction - liberation of carbon dioxide.
    Dehydrogenase reaction - NAD+ > NADH
    Pyruvate > Acetyl-CoA + CO2.
  47. 47What is pyruvate dehydrogenase composed of?Coenzymes - TPP/ Thiamine pyrophosphate, Lipoate and NAD/FAD.
    Multiple enzymes - E1, E2 and E3
  48. 48When you see Acetyl CoA... what must we remember about Coenzyme A attached to the Acetyl group?The coenzyme A 'group' in the molecule is a MASSIVE complex:When you see Acetyl CoA... what must we remember about Coenzyme A attached to the Acetyl group?
  49. 49What is extremely important about the deltaG value of -33.4kJ/mol for this net reaction of Pyruvate dehydrogenase?Essentially an irreversible reaction since it is so largely negative and extremely favourable.
  50. 50What are the long names for the following 3 enzymes making up Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex - E1, E2 and E3, and what are their associated coenzymes?- E1 = Pyruvate dehydrogenase = Coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate/ TPP
    - E2 = Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase = Coenzyme Lipoate. and CoA.
    - E3 = Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase = Coenzyme FAD, NAD
  51. 51Why are the three enzyme, E1, E2 and E3 not separate in the mitocondria - why do they make up the pyruvate dehydrogenase clumped together?It reduces side reactions and unwanted products.
    It allows for increased efficiency.
  52. 52Describe the structure of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase.- Made up of E1, E2 and E3.
    - E1 (Pyruvate dehydrogenase) attached to TPP group.
    - E2 (Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase) attached to a ring lipoamide.
    - E3 (Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase) attached to FAD side chain.
  53. 53What happens at stage one during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?Pyruvate reacts with (E1) Pyruvate dehydrogenase's bound TPP - undergoing decarboxylation to form hydroxyethyl derivative.What happens at stage one during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?
  54. 54What happens at stage two during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?The transfer of 2e- and the acetyl group from (E1) pyruvate dehydrogenase's TPP to the oxidised form of (E2) Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase lipoamide side chain.What happens at stage two during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?
  55. 55What happens at stage three during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?Transesterification in which the -SH group of CoA replaces the -SH group of (E2) Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase's to yield Acetyl CoA and reduced form of E2's lipoamide side chain.What happens at stage three during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?
  56. 56What happens at stage four during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?E3 (Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase) promotes transfer of 2 H-atoms from reduced side chain lipoamide of (E2) Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase to FAD... reducing FAD to FADH2 and forming an oxidised lipoamide side chain of Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase.What happens at stage four during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?
  57. 57What happens at stage five during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?Reduced FADH2 group on (E3) Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase transfers a hydride ion to NAD+, forming NADH + H+.What happens at stage five during the production of Acetyl-CoA from Pyruvate dehydrogenase?
  58. 58What is the equation for the conversion of pyruvate into AcetylCoA?- Pyruvate (3C) + NAD+ + CoASH > AcetylCoA (2C) + CO2 + NADH + H+
  59. 59What is the first stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetate + H2O > Citrate (6C) + CoA + H+ (Citrate synthase).
    - Condensation - Combining of 2 molecules with the elimination of CoA.    What is the first stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  60. 60What is the second stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Citrate (6C) < > Cis-aconitate intermediate (6C) + Water
    - Aconitase
    - Dehydration - Removal of water.    What is the second stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  61. 61What is the third stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Cis-aconitate (6C) + Water < > Isocitrate (6C)
    - Aconitase
    - Hydration - Addition of water    What is the third stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  62. 62What is the fourth stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Isocitrate (6C) + NAD+ < > Alpha-ketoglutarate (5C) + Carbon dioxide + NADH + H+
    - Isocitrate dehydrogenase
    - Decarboxylation & oxidation- Removal of carbon dioxide - dehydrogenation of substrate - reduction of NAD+.    What is the fourth stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  63. 63What is the fifth stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Alpha-ketoglutarate (5C) + NAD+ + CoA < > Succinyl-CoA (4C) + Carbon dioxide + NADH
    - Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
    - Decarboxylation & oxidation - Removal of carbon dioxide & dehydrogenation of substrate/ reduction of NAD+.    What is the fifth stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  64. 64What is the sixth stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Succinyl-CoA (4C) + Pi + GDP < > Succinate (4C) + GTP + CoA
    - Succinate CoA synthetase
    - Substrate level phosphorylation - Addition of phosphate to GDP.    What is the sixth stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  65. 65What is the seventh stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Succinate (4C) + FAD < > Fumarate (4C) + FADH2
    - Succinate dehydrogenase
    - Oxidation/ Dehydrogenation of substrate - Reduction of FAD.    What is the seventh stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  66. 66What is the eighth stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Fumarate (4C) + Water < > Malate (4C)
    - Fumarase
    - Hydration - Addition of Water to substrate across double bond.    What is the eighth stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  67. 67What is the final stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?- Malate (4C) + NAD+ < > Oxaloacetate (4C) + NADH + H+
    - Malate dehydrogenase
    - Oxidation of substrate/ Dehydrogenation & Reduction of NAD+.    What is the final stage in the Kreb's cycle? What enzyme catalyses this? What type of reaction is this?
  68. 68What is the net overall reaction for the Citric Acid Cycle?Acetyl-CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi > 2CO2 + 3NADH + FADH2 + GTP + 2H+ + CoA.
  69. 69What is a competitive inhibitor of Succinate dehydrogenase?Malonate
  70. 70What is the most toxic small molecule known to man? How does it influence the citric acid cycle?- Rat poison - Fluoroacetate.
    - It is converted to fluorocitrate but cannot be metabolised further nor transported out of the mitochondria.
    - Inhibits the citric acid cycle as a result.
  71. 71Describe lactose intolerance.When adults lose the enzyme Lactase after childhood (bar North Europeans) and this means they lose their ability to use lactose (milk sugar) in their diet - results in abdominal cramps and diarrhoea.
  72. 72What is glucokinase in the liver, and what is so special about its features in the liver?- Glucokinase is a form of hexokinase which converts Glucose into Glucose-6-Phosphate.
    - It is specific to the liver; having a higher Km for Glucose used in the synthesis of Glycogen.
  73. 73Name 3 inhibitors of Glycolysis .- Arsenic
    - Iodoacetic acid
    - Fluoride
  74. 74How does Arsenic inhibit glycolysis?- A mimic for phosphate, but v. unstable.
    - Glycolysis in the present of Arsenic forms 1-arseno-3-phospoglycerate which spontaneously breaks down into 3-phosphoglycerate with no gain of ATP.
    - Death occurs because of Arsenic.
  75. 75What can be a serious result of a Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency?- If there is a deficiency in G6P dehydrogenase this can mean that less oxidised NADP+ is reduced to NADPH.
    - Reduced NADPH is utilised to reduce Glutathione/ recycle glutathione - an anti oxidant.
    - This anti-oxidant is required in erythrocytes to maintain cysteine residues in haemoglobin.
    - People with an inherited deficiency in G6P dehydrogenase as a result cannot tolerate the anti-malarial, pamaquire - as pamaquire increases the formation of Hydrogen peroxide which can also not be broken down as sufficiently.
    - G6P dehydrogenase deficiency can also result from ingestion of flavobeans (broadbeans).
    - Symptoms: Urine turns black, jaundice, erythrocytes swell and burst (haemolytic anaemia).
  76. 76Where is there shown to be a high incidence of G6P dehydrogenase deficiency?Like sickle cell anaemia, in areas of high rates of malaria - people suffering from G6P dehydrogenase deficiency are shown to have a degree of protection against malaria.
  77. 77What is meant by Thiamine deficiency?- The lack of Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) - a coenzyme of E1 (pyruvate dehydrogenase).
    - A.k.a. Vitamin B1 deficiency.
    - Results in neurological and cardiovascular disorders/ loss of function, pain and paralysis.
    - Neurological disease Beri Beri is a disease caused by a diet high in 'polished' or white rice when the person has Thiamine deficiency.
    - Thiamine deficiency is also found in people who consume large amounts of alcohol (their carbohydrate intake is largely in liquid form - less thiamine absorption in the gut).
  78. 78What other enzyme in the citric acid cycle is similar to pyruvate dehydrogenase?alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
  79. 79In Glycolysis (the conversion of glucose into pyuvate in the cytosol)... describe how the net ATP of 2 molecules is reached.- Phosphorylation of glucose (-1)
    - Phosphorylation of Fructose-6-Phosphate (-1).
    - Dephosphorylation of 2 molecules of 1,3-bisposphoglycerate (+2).
    - Dephosphorylation of 2 molecules of Phosphoenolpyruvate (+2).
    NET = 2
  80. 80How many molecules of NADH are formed from the oxidation of 2 molecules of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate in Glycolysis?2 NADH
  81. 81How many molecules of NADH are formed from the oxidation of 2 molecules of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate in Glycolysis?2 NADH.
  82. 82How many molecules of NADH are formed in the conversion of Pyruvate into AcetylCoA?2 NADH.
  83. 83How many molecules of NADH are formed from the conversion of pyruvate into AcetylCoA (inside the mitochondria)?2 NADH (since there are 2 molecules of pyruvate for every molecule of glucose).
  84. 84How many molecules of the following are produced in the Citric Acid Cycle from one molecule of Glucose (within the mitochondria)? - GTP - NADH - FADH2- GTP = 2
    - NADH = 6
    - FADH2 = 2
  85. 85How many of the following molecules are formed from one molecule of glucose in the citric acid cycle? - GTP - NADH - FADH2- GTP = 2
    - NADH = 6
    - FADH2 = 2
  86. 86How many molecules of water are used in the citric acid cycle from one molecule of glucose?4
  87. 87Whereabouts in the citric acid cycle is water taken in?- At the very beginning when AcetylCoA merges with Oxaloacetate.
    - Towards the end when fumarate is hydrated into malate across the double bond.
  88. 88Whereabouts in the citric acid cycle is water taken in for hydration of intermediates?- At the very beginning when AcetylCoA merges with Oxaloacetate.
    - Near the end of the citric acid cycle when fumarate is hydrated into malate across the double bond.
  89. 89How many molecules of Water are required for the citric acid cycle per molecule of glucose?4
  90. 90How many molecules of ATP does both NADH and FADH2 yield per molecule?NADH = 2.5 ATPs
    FADH2 = 1.5 ATPs
  91. 91How many molecules of ATP is formed by NADH (synthesised in Glycolysis) - assuming that each one yields 1.5 ATPs (using the transport of NADH by the glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle)?3 ATPs
  92. 92How many molecules of ATP are formed from the synthesis of NADH in Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate into AcetylCoA?2 NADHs formed therefore = 5 ATPs.
  93. 93How many molecules of ATP are synthesised from the 2 molecules of FADH2 produced per molecule of Glucose in the citric acid cycle?3 ATPs.
  94. 94How many moles of ATP are synthesised from NADH produced from the citric acid cycle (per molecule of glucose)?6 molecules of NADH.
    Therefore = 15 ATPs.
  95. 95What is the net yield of ATPs synthesised per molecule of Glucose in its complete oxidation?Glycolysis = 2 ATPs.
    Citric Acid Cycle = 2 GTP
    Oxidative Phosphorylation = 3 ATPs (G3P shuttle/ 2NADH) + 5ATPs (2 NADH in oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate) + 3 ATPs (2 FADH2 in the citric acid cycle) + 15 ATPs (6 NADH in the citric acid cycle) = 30 ATPs.

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Degree Biochemistry Flashcards on Glycolysis Lecture 2, created by Afronewtzz on 06/05/2015.
Created by
Afronewtzz · May 2015
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Feb 3, 2018
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