Flashcards
Part 1
Cards in this deck (200)
- 1EcologyStudy of how organisms interact with each other and their environment. It is intertwined and co-dependent with evolution
- 2Primary goalUnderstand distribution and abundance of organisms
- 3Why are environments changing more rapidly now than in the past 3.5 billion years?- >7 degrees C flux
- regions in climatic extremes, <15 degrees C range
- small geographic range size
- small body size - 4Noise pollutionAnthropogenic noise directly disrupts and affects acoustic modality of communication
- 5Terrestrial examplesUrban traffic, motorways, wind farms, construction
- 6Marine exampleBoats, military sonar, hydroelectric dams
- 7Types of ecology with definitions...- Organismal: behaviours of 1 or 2 organisms at a time
- Population
- Community: how they interact with others in their ecosystem
- Ecosystem: how they facilitate movements of nutrients between different areas
Global: how populations, communities, and ecosystems are affected - 8Conservation BiologyIntegrates the 5 different types of ecology and studies, preserves, and restores threatened genetic diversity in populations, species diversity in communities, and ecosystem function
- 9Biodiversity Importance:- Healthy environments: cleaner air and water, natural-based solutions to climate change, resilience to storms and flooding
- Healthy humans: food security and nutrition, natural medicine and pharmaceuticals, promotes mental health and feeling connected
- Healthy economies: resistance to urban shocks, recreation and tourism, livelihoods and job creation - 10BiogeographyStudy of how organisms are distributed geographically
(phytogeography for plants; zoogeography for animals) - 11Abiotic FactorsTemp., moisture, salinity, water depth, light availability, pollutants
- Influences organisms niche (conditions organisms can survive)
- Sensitive to climate change - 12Biotic factorsCompetition, predation, disease from pathogen and parasites
- 13Abiotic and biotic factors are____, meaning?dynamic; past influences present
- 14Wallace LineDiscovered by Alfred Russel Wallace who founded study of biogeography. NW found tigers, rhinos, elephants; SE found kangaroos, platypuses. Deep trench in ocean maintained water barrier to dispersal
- 15How do humans affect distribution of species?Hunting, deforestation, and physically moving organisms
- 16Introduced (exotic) speciesSpecies that occur outside natural range from human activity
- don't usually become invasive from unsuitable habitat, limited numbers to be established, and ecological controls in place - 17Invasive speciesIntroduced species that experience rapid increases in abundance
- can displace native species (completion), overexploit natives, and alter habitat
- caused over 50% of recent extinctions partially or completely - 18Ecological releaseWhat exotic species experience when a species expands its niche within its own habitat or into a new habitat where there is little competition, which remain abundant
- 19Interaction of biotic and abiotic factors with Argentine antWith moisture, they attempt invasion; if native ants are present, invasion is not always successful
- 20Weather vs ClimateWeather: specific short-term atmospheric conditions of temp., precipitation, sunlight, and wind
Climate: prevailing long-term weather conditions that occur in relatively predictable global patterns - 21Why is equator warm and poles cool?Insulation: sun rays arrive at earth in parallel
- hit equator at direct angle
- poles at oblique angle so it is dispersed over larger area
Hadley cells: low-latitude circulations with hot air rising at equator and cool air sinking at around 30 degrees latitude - 22Coriolis effectWind moves in NS and EW direction based on orbit
- E orbit: Southern hemisphere deflected to left = NW; Northern hemisphere directed to right = SE - 23SeasonalityRegular, annual fluctuations in temp., precipitation or both due to the Earth's tilt on the N-S axis by 23.5 degrees
- 24Mountain affects on climateWarm, moist air rises on mountain from ocean
Air cools and condenses to form clouds
It rains
Air descends, warms, and becomes drier
Rain shadow forms on dry side facing away from prevailing winds (leeward side) in area of low precipitation - 25Oceans affects on climateHigh impact on distribution of animals as warmth provides energy for growth and sustenance
- High specific heat capacity to absorb a lot of heat (landmasses near water remain cooler)
- Moves water from equator to N where it cools - 26BiomesBroad, ecologically uniform areas whose characteristic species reflect climatic variation
- 27EvapotranspirationXylem moves water from roots to leafs
Stomata opens to take in CO2 while O2 is released
Evaporation occurs from soil and water bodies from ground
Water rises and condenses into precipitation
Precipitation brings water back down so groundwater can restart process - 28Precipitation and potential for evapotranspiration change with _____ and _____ What is the primary determinant of vegetation type?Latitude; altitude
The ratio between precipitation and evapotranspiration is the primary determinant - 29Tundra- Coldest biome
- Above 65 degrees N
- Mosses, lichens, herbs, low shrubs; grasses, sedges, and flowering plants in drier places
- Caribou are grazers, and musk oxen, rabbits, birds, and insects
- Apex predators = wolves and foxes
- No high growth potential (roots not deep enough from layer of ice) - 30Alpine- Like tundra but lack ice below soil with temps varying wider (higher growth potential)
- High potential for UV damage (plants low and grow slow)
- Mountain goats, llamas, yaks, mammoth, insects
- Apex predators = wolves and cats - 31Taiga- Cool, moist boreal forests occurring from 50 degrees to 65 degrees N
- Short, rainy summers
- Dominated by conifers
- Slow decomposition from low temps, but has acidic soil and nutrient poor
- Elk, moose, caribou, porcupines, diverse birds, rodents, insects
- Apex predators = bears, lynx, wolverines, weasels, foxes - 32Temperate Coniferous Forest- Below 50 degrees N
- Pacific coast: warm summers, mild winters; abundant precipitation for growth of conifers
- Interior North America: colder winters, less precipitation to support drought-resistant conifers - 33Deciduous Forest- Moderate climate with hardwood deciduous trees exemplifying seasonality
- Relatively high diversity of insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians - 34Temperate Grasslands- Lack precipitation from disturbance of fires to maintain population (high temps)
- Sufficient moisture, nutrients accumulate in soil from decomposition - 35Desert- N and S of equator from 25 degrees - 35 degrees latitude
- Wind patterns prevent precipitation
- Have succulents with deep roots and stems for water storage - 36Tropical Rainforest- 10 degrees N and S of equator; most diverse
- Warm with annual precipitation exceeding 250 cm
- 300+ tree species
- High diversity, high precipitation - 37Aquatic organism challenges- Water denser than air
- Sunlight decreases as depth increases\
- Primary producers on surface and sustain trophic webs in deeper water
- O2 dissolves in water to limited extent (surface waters have O2 concentration 20x lower than that of air) - 38Freshwater biomes: Lakes and RiversLakes: more than 20% of all freshwater habitat
- Potentially stratified (nutrients layered)
Rivers: turbulent flow; generally well-oxygenated
- erode, transport, and deposit sediments so shapes continually change - 39Estuaries and Saltwater BiomesEstuaries: ecotone (transition zones) between freshwater and saltwater
- distinct zones with increasing salinity (high diversity of organisms at each stage)
Saltwater Biomes: largest biome subdivided by depth and proximity to shoreline - 40Neritic, Oceanic and Pelagic Zone, Photic ZoneShoreline - Neritic: closer to land; Oceanic: far from land
Depth - Pelagic Zone: open ocean; Photic Zone: surface where sunlight penetrates - 41Flow of nutrients in oceans- No primary production; life sustained by detritus raining downward from surface waters
- 42Intertidal Zones- As tide rises and falls, get exposed to air
- Organisms exposed to atmosphere on a daily basis and burrowing into sand or closing cells minimize this - 43Coral Reefs- Most diverse biome in oceans from high primary productivity
- - 44Deep Sea- Cold and dark with limited biomass but high species diversity
- Hydrothermal vents connected to earth's crest for primary production
- Species similar regardless (global) - 45Global Patterns of Primary Production is driven by what?- Climate and nutrient availability
- Terrestrial: sunlight, water, nutrients
- Ocean: nutrients
- High levels of annual primary production at equator with high levels of sunlight
- Poles with sunlight and wind currents have high predictable distribution of primary production
- Oceans are more mixed and cannot sustain too much light
- Higher levels around continental shelf with higher levels of nutrient availability
- Open areas = Low primary production - 46Biodiversity of mammals in tropical regions vs. the poles- Consume primary producers; higher levels of biodiversity with high levels of primary production
- Tropical regions = great biodiversity
- Poles = lower biodiversity - 47Plant Global Diversity and Population density high latitudes vs. low latitudes- Higher diversity at low latitudes close to equator; Low population density as different species compete with each other
- Low species diversity at high latitudes; High population density - 48Latitudinal Diversity Gradient- Species diversity peaks near equator and declines toward poles
- 49Hypotheses of Latitudinal Diversity Gradient- Tropical habitats have existed much longer than temperate habitats
- More difficult to adapt to cold, dry winters and extreme temp. ranges at higher latitudes than to warm, wet, and less extreme temp. ranges at lower altitudes (less to adapt to, better you can do) - 50Peacock Spider BehaviourWaves arms and vibrates abdomen
- 51Giraffes BehaviourNeck fighting; adapted neck with cartilage to display dominance and force widrawal
- 52Mantis MatingNuptial gifting/sexual cannibalism
- Communicate with antenna signals and will lock genitalia to initiate sperm transfer
- Female eats male head and will continue to transfer sperm (male functions without head)
- Female consumes body or discards - 53Hammer Orchid and Wasp- Evolved to mimic female wasp (flower looks like wasp and wafts pheromones to smell like themP
- Evolved hinge to throw male into stamen so pollen sac attaches to back
- Flower exploits sensory bias of male for female wasps - 54BehaviourAction in response to a stimulus
- 55Key Behaviour Questions- What adaptive function does it serve
- What causes it?
- How does it develop?
- How does it evolve - 56EthologyThe study of character
- Was hypothesized that emotions have origins in animal behaviour - 57Niko TinbergenLooked at egg retrieval behaviours of geese
- Wasps fly to nests and burrow into holes to lay eggs and raise offspring - 58Lorenz and ImprintingConceptualized imprinting (type of pre-programmed learning in young animals during critical developmental period)
- When eggs hatch, first organism hatchling lays eyes on is parent - 59Von FrischLooked at bees and discovered their language
- Rely on visual cues
- Waggle dance: waggle in 1 direction, turning right or left to tell other bees observing where to find foo - 60Tinberg's 4 Questions: ProximateShort-term processes acting within an individual's lifetime affecting the behaviour (How and what questions)
- Developmental: How is the behaviour acquired over one's lifetime?
- Mechanistic: How is the behaviour caused through neural, muscular, and other processes? - 61Tinberg's 4 Questions: UltimateLong-term evolutionary processes affecting behaviour (why questions)
- Evolutionary: Where and how did the behaviour arise in the past?
- Adaptive: How does the behaviour enhance the survival and/or reproduction of individuals? - 62Behaviour varies in flexibility...Fixed, Stereotyped -> Flexible, Conditional (changes in context)
- 63Behaviour varies in degree of learningInnate (genetically) -> Learned (environmental cues)
- 64InnateBehaviour passed genetically from parents to offspring like reflexes, instincts, and fixed action patterns
- 65LearnedResults from specific experience within an individual's life producing an enduring change
- Animal exhibits behaviour and reward or punishment is experience - 66Fixed Action Pattern and its 6 characteristicsInstinctive, highly stereotypes and species-characteristic behavioural sequence
- Stereotyped: in rigid, predictable, and highly structures sequences
- Complex: not simple reflex like patellar reflex
- Species-characteristic: exhibited by all members of species
- Released: occurs in response to specific stimulus
- Triggered: once released, continues to completion
- Independent of experience: not learned - 67Supernormal StimulusThe larger the object, the larger the response
- 68Innate predator avoidance behaviour in Coast horned lizard- Small blood vessels around eyes explode and shoot high pressure stream of blood at dog
- Pheromones in blood from formic acids from eating ants; coyote deterred from eating lizard - 69Non-Associative LearningLearning in absence of outcome; animals alter behaviour after exposure to stimulus and repeated exposure either augments or attenuates behaviour
- Habituation: behaviour attenuates through repeated exposure to stimulus (get used to something)
- Sensitization: behaviour enhanced through repeated exposure to stimulus (e.g., louden the noise each time) - 70Associative learningOccurs when 2 events are linked
- 71Classical conditioningInnate behaviours are conditioned to be triggered by novel stimuli through repeated exposure
- 72Operant conditioningTrial-and-error learning where behaviour is modified over time through association with an outcome (reward or punishment)
- 73Filial Imprinting- Newly hatched goslings and ducklings rapidly learn to treat any animal they see shorty after hatching as their mother and results are irreversible
- 74Habitat ImprintingAttachment to particular environment
- 75Sexual ImprintingSocial attachment to sexual partner
- 76Fitness Trade-OffsImprovement in 1 trait or behaviour comes at expense of another so some type of analysis occurs to increase and improve fitness
- 77Cost-Benefit Analysis- Measured in terms of impact on fitness to understand and quantify behavioural choices
- Not usually conscious
- Behaviour varies within populations leading to some traits selected for and some selected against - 78Optimal Allocation Theory and an example in plant growthDrives allocation of resources in either leaves, stems, or roots, depending on what is needed
Growth in dark: more resources for shoot growth to reach higher
Full light: more resources for developing leafs to maximize photosynthesis - 79Predator induced phenotypic plasticity in daphniaWhen predators are present in water, chemical cues travel through and morphology will chance (become less manageable to eat with its built in armour)
- 80ForagingBehaviours exhibited when choosing what, how, and when to eat involving feeding, hoarding, or provisioning
- 81Proximate causes with foraging alleles- Protein product involved in signal transduction cascade in nervous system allowing response to stimuli (single gene influences behaviour)
Rover allele: dominant allele move around and look for other patches of food
Sitter allele: sit around and eat food where they land
- Both adaptive - 82Ultimate causes of sitter and rover allelesPopulation density high; food supply short = rover allele favoured (move around and compete with others)
Low density; high food supply = sitter allele favoured (don't need to compete; save energy) - 83Optimal foraging theorySpecific benefits and costs depending on feeding strategy, environmental conditions, behaviours (how they bah when looking for food)
- 84Habitat SelectionHow do the factors interact to affect how animals exploit their habitat?
Facilitated by movement and migration - 85Differential habitat selection- Enables species to coexist
- Patterns change from change sin relative use among multiple habitat types or changes in availability
- Movement and migration facilitate - 86MigrationLong-distance movement of population associated with change of seasons which leads to change in food availability
- 87How animals navigate migration (proximate causes)- Using landmarks
- Compass orientation
- True navigation - 88Orientation (Kinesis and Taxes)Kinesis: random, undirected movements towards favourable conditions
Taxes: movements in specific direction in response to stimulus - 89Magnetotaxis (anaerobic bacteria and pigeons)Towards magnetic field
Anaerobic bacteria: move towards northern magnetic field, creating exposure to O2 causing death
Pigeon: manipulated magnetic field to go to right one - 90NavigationMany birds use compass and map senses to return to place of origin (used for closer destinations)
- 91Biological clocksProduced by set of molecular mechanisms that cycles on its own and keeps a regular rhythm
Can be daily (diurnal), monthly (lunar), or yearly (annual) - 92Circadian ClocksGoverned by changes in light-dark cycles allowing for seasonal changes to behaviour
- 93clock shiftingBirds raised in day-night cycle out of sync with what naturally occurs and released and observed for changes in behaviour due to shifted sense of time
- Birds shifted by 6 hours = 90 degree direction shift
- Headed northward - 94True NavigationAnimals have sense of specific location to travel
- Manipulated magnetic fields (northward area = swim south to get back home; southward area = swim north to get home) - 95Difficult to test causes of migrationComparative options not always available
- 96Communication ModelBehaviour between sender and receiver where sender sends signal, propagates through environment, and arrives at receiver with receptors which will modify behaviour if benefits them
- 97Feature DetectionSpecialized groups of sensory receptors that respond to important signals from the environment
- 98Visual modalitiesobvious and easy to observe
- 99Acoustic modalitieslike songbird singing
- 100Olfactory modalitieslike stink moth; female releases pheromone cues into air, pheromones attach to male receptors on antenna to fly towards female
- 101Electric modalitieslike electric eels
- 102Tactile modalitiesThrough touch
- 103Seismic modalitieslike leaf hoppers; send vibratory signals through leaves or stems of plants
- 104Thermal modalitieslike snakes with thermal pits to detect heat
- 105Advertisement display behaviours with exampleIndividuals draw attention to their status
I.e., bird songs
- Memory acquisition; within 1st 50 days (sensitivity period): whatever song exposed to is added to repertoire of song in adulthood
- Subsong; 50-250 (unstructured twittering): components of song sung without structure
- Plastic song; 250-300 (sing plastic version): structure begins
- Song crystallization; requires testosterone at sexual maturity: fully structured song - 106Evolution of signalsevolves from existing body structure, organs, physiological processes, or ordinary non-signalling behaviours
- 107RitualizationPerform behaviours and continue to until signal is conveyed to receiver
- 108Function of animal communicationBasic function = increasing fitness (mediating fights, ownership/territoriality, mating/courtship, food calls, alarm calls)
- 109Proximate cause of waggle dance in beesLength of run proportional to distance to food
Whatever way bee turns is the direction of food relative to sun - 110Ultimate causesSuccessful communication = more efficient foraging and higher communication
- 111Interspecific deception with exampleBetween species
Beetle larvae waves antenna got attract frog
When frog pounces larva, larva dodges is and clamps down with sharp mandibles on side of frog to pump with neurotoxins - 112Infraspecific deception with exampleWithin species
fish species mimic female to acquire mating opportunities - 113Honest signals and aposematismDon't choose to be honest
Aposematism: warning colour in animals (Black and yellow promotes toxicity and unpalatable) - 114Batesian mimicryFake; coral snake black and yellow (toxic); milk snake same colour (not toxic)
- 115Mullein mimicryColour motif exists; species evolve same colouration to reinforce predators to avoid
- 116Altruismself-sacrificing for sender to benefit receiver which is coordinated by group selection
- 117Kin selection and Hamilton's RuleGenetic worth of 8 cousins = 2 brothers = yourself
Relatedness x benefit > cost - 118Direct fitness vs indirect fitnessDirect: derived from individual's own offspring
Indirect: derived from helping relatives produce more offspring - 119EusocialityHighest level of organization in sociality (structures with very clear roles of members within a society)
- 120Bee CharacteristicsDrones (males) function to mate with Queen
Workers don't reproduce (just Queen)
Gather food and take care of babies (cooperative care)
Relatedness between females are 75% (super sisters; relatedness > cost)
Male is haploid (1 set of chromosomes into female); Queen is diploid (50% of weather allele into each workers) - 121Features of a populationSize
Range (geographical range species covers)
Density (population size/range) - 122Size, Range, DensitySize: individuals of all ages that are alive at a particular time in a particular space
Range: How wide a population is spread and is determined by climates and other species
Density: number of people/land area; crowded or dispersed
- need to know distribution pattern (random, clumped, uniform) - 123Estimating population sizes with mark-and recapturePopulation size (N); Caught on 1st day (M); Marked and unmarked on 2nd day (C); Recaptures (R)
N = C/R x M - 124Factors affecting population size- Birth and immigration (increase)
- Mortality and emigration (decrease) - 125Population growthCalculate net flow in
B = Births; D = Deaths; I = Immigration; E = Emigration
(B - D) + (I - E) - 126Per Capita Growth RateProportional growth or decline over time
Commonly called intrinsic rate of increase (max. rate exponentially of growth when no environmental factors limit population increase) - 127Factors that limit population growthCompetition (intra and inter) for natural resources
- 128Carrying capacity (K)Max. number individuals any habitat can support
Populations small = resources not limiting so can grow at or near intrinsic growth rate - 129Density-Independent vs Density DependentDependent: resources, predation
Independent: climatic events, natural disasters (more linear) - 130DemographyStudy of factors that determine size and stricture of populations through time
Knowing age structure is important (organisms ar different ages experience different things) - 131Age structureAll individuals do not contribute equally to population growth (reproductive capacity often depends on age)
Related to socioeconomic mechanisms (better health care systems = more stability in lifespan) - 132Life TableSummarizes probability individual will survive and reproduce at any given time interval over their lifetime
Track individuals, group by year/age
Survivorship changes as function of age - 133Dangers at each growth state affecting survivorship in lime swallowtails- Egg: desiccation; dry out and roll off leaf (get parasitized by flies)
- Hatched: predators (wasps eating larva)
Older larva more defended but still have risk
- Pupa: immobile; find perches on branch to form pupae with risk of parasitic wasps
Adult: predation by birds
Lowest among immobile life stages - 134Survivorship: Type IMost survive early to intermediate life stages; once geriatric, decline
- 135Type IIMortality relatively constant throughout lifespan
- 136Type IIIHard to survive earlier; once you do, can survive late in life
- 137FecundityNumber of female offspring produced by each female in the population
Most offspring produced by females of intermediate age - 138Net Reproductive RateSum of average births/year/original female across all age classes
Sum = 1; stable
Sum > 1; increasing
Sum < 1; decreasing - 139Fitness Trade-Offs and Life History- Fitness trade-offs is why not all populations can have high fecundity and high survival
- Life history: how one allocates resources to growth, reproductions, and behaviour or morphology related to survival - 140r-strategists vs. K-strategistsr: produce large number of offspring due to low probability of survivorship (few care)
- External fertilization
- Unstable environments
- Population density influences by density-independent factors (increases intrinsic growth rate)
K: relatively few young due to high probability of survivorship (provide care)
- Internal fertilization
- Stable environments
- Population densities near carrying capacity - 141Population dynamics and population cyclesChanges in population through time and space
Help to understand how intra and interspecific density-dependent factors interact - 142Hair-Lynx cycle and its hypothesesDecrease in lynx population = increase in hare population
Once hare reaches certain size, lynx population increases which causes crash in hare population
Bottom-up hypothesis: when populations reach high density, hares use up all food and starve; in response, lynx starve too
Top-down hypothesis: when populations reach high density, lynx eat so many hares that the prey population crashes - 143MetapopulationLarge population made up of smaller populations linked by occasional movements of individuals between them
- 144Small Vs. Large PopulationsSmall more likely to go locally extinct
Corridors allow for more movement to rescue populations
Unpredictable events = local extinctions but recolonization more likely id corridors are available - 145E- Edge of habitat = higher exposure to wind for predation and UV damage
- Middle = not as exposed to factors; higher survival
- As patchy gets smaller, proportion of area of edge increases and edge effect is proportionally larger - 146Patchiness leads to speciation because...if they are far enough apart that populations acquire new mutations with low rates of gene flow and reproductive isolation occurs (can also be influenced by occupying different niches within same environment)
- 147Climate change on populationSpecies rely on coat colour changes to camouflage during winter months
Changes in snow cover are shifting distributions of the species to more Northern latitudes (earlier snow melt; organisms not adapted to change coat colour early)
More vulnerability to predation - 148Biological CommunitiesAll populations of different species that interact in a certain area
Species interactions are constant and affects growth and reproduction - 149NichePhysical habitat and ecological role/function of a species driven by abiotic and biotic factors
Ways organisms respond to, and affect, resources and other species in the habitat - 150Male beetles example of nicheRollers: roll away from pile and bring it to where living to live in or consume
Dwellers: roll and dig into it to build house
Tunnellers: dig underground and put ball under to lay eggs into
Perform functions which interact with how they navigate through space or how they interact within or out of their species - 151Fundamental Vs. Realized NicheFundamental: full range of climate condition and food resources permitting species to survive there (theoretical niche)
Realized: actual portion in which a species can survive due to interactions like competition - 152Species interactionsAll interactions combine costs and benefits
Competition: -/-
Predation: +/-
Herbivory: +/-(plants)
Parasitism: +(parasite)/-(host species)
- above these are antagonistic
Mutualism: +/+
Commensalism: +/0 - 153Key themes of interactions- Affect distribution and abundance of particular species
- Species can act as agents of natural selection
- Outcome of interactions is dynamic and conditional - 154Antagonistic interactions2 individuals of same or different species use same limited resource
Intra: more from behavioural aspect
Inter: drives community structure - 155Interspecific competition: Competitive exclusion principlePrevents 2 species from occupying same niche at same time
Might not occur unless population sizes of both are large enough to encounter each other to reduce resources - 156Resource portioning (niche differentiation)Evolutionary change in resource use where similar species diverge in habitat use and feeding strategies
Uses character displacement (evolutionary change in species traits that makes niche differentiation possible)
E.g., animals come out at different times of day - 157PredationDrives trophic web interactions
Drives adaptation in terms of behaviour
- can incur cost but manages to rebalance with bigger benefit
- consumes over time if prey is heavy
- natural and sexual selection reinforcement: benefit from consumption; added of becoming signal to female of good fitness
Some adapt to deal with toxins
Impact on prey population depends on predator density, prey density, and effectiveness of defences
Strong selection on prey for effective defence; strong selection on consumers to overcome defences; coevolutionary arms race - 158Huffaker Predator-Prey ExperimentMite with mite predator and no ability to escape: prey population increases over time; once certain population count, predator species consumes it
Another allowing mite to escape: prey moves to other populations, gets better, and increases
- prey increases to certain level; predator follow from consuming prey; prey falls but will increase again from escaping - 159Constitutive defences (cryptic colouration and object resemblance, escape behaviour, toxins and defence chemicals (aposematism), schooling/flocking, defines and weaponry)Always present in organism
Cryptic colouration: camouflage
Escape: neurobasis for avoiding predators striking
Toxins: warning colouration
Schooling/Flocking: crowding behaviour to confuse predator or gain group benefits
Defence: develop defence and armour always present - 160Evolutionary arms raceStruggle between competing sets of co-evolving genes, phenotypic and behavioural traits that develop escalating adaptation and counter-adaptations against each other
To maintain competitive nature, if competitor betters, you need to better to counterbalance - 161Parasitis and HerbivoryParasite live in close association with another species and gain nutrition by consuming host's tissues (typically doesn't kill host as it will have to expend energy to look for another)
Herbivores consume plant parts and remove products of photosynthesis from plant productivity (plants will develop chemical or physical deterrentsO - 162Mutualistic InteractionsBenefits = access to nutrients, shelter from enemies or weather, direct help in reproduction
Benefits outweigh costs (act in own self interest)
Population size and range linked between both species
Strong selection size on both species to maximize benefits and minimize costs - 163Coevolution is symbionts2 organisms require each other for survival
Phylogenetic trees mapped against each other almost identical
Mutations can affect both sides - 164Plant-Digestive SymbiosesLeaf cutter ants feed fragments to gardens of fungi which digest leaves and become food for the plants (plants provide fungi with food source; fungi provides ants with food)
- 165Obligate Vs. Facultative MutualismsObligate: 1 or both sides of a mutualism cannot survey or reproduce without the other
Facultative: 1 or both sides of a mutualism can survive without the other - 166Commensalism with example1 partner benefits with n apparent affect on other
Can turn into mutualism, but in general, 1 benefits
Population size and range may be linked
Strong selection on commensal to increase fitness benefit with no selection on other
Egrets and cattle: Birds walk around cattle and they kick uo invertebrates fore grates to get food - 167Key attributes of community structure- total number of species
- Sum of all interactions among species
- Relative abundance of species
- Physical attributes of community (biotic and abiotic) - 168Community StructureNo clearly defined boundaries (liable to change dynamic)
Some species have disproportionate influence on diversity and abundance of other species in a community - 169Keystone speciesAffects other members of the community in ways that are disproportionate to its abundance or biomass (found in low members by high impact on environment)
Integrity of community may hinge on single species - 170Keystone species example (sea otters0)Sea otters overheated, sea urchin abundance soared
Kelp forests nearly disappeared along with populations sustained by kelp
Urchin populations controlled when otters re-introduced and protected - 171Keystone species example (Eurasian watermilfoil)Grows fast and is capable of forming sense surface mats (sunlight can't penetrate through)
Outcompetes native plants and reduces plant biodiversity - 172Keystone species example (Milfoil weevil)Controls population of invasive plants (consumes growing stems pf milfoil to suppress growth of apical stems)
- 173Ecosystem engineersType of keystone species that shape physical environment, creating habitat for others
Facilities presence of other species - 174Ecosystem Engineers Vs. Keystone Species (Outcome Vs. Process)Ecosystem engineer (outcome): food webs (if species has strong influence on outcome of organization of species in trophic cascade)
Keystone species (process): physical processes within the environment which are modifies by an organism - 175Ecosystem Engineer example (beavers)Build dams to prevent water from flowing continuously (changes ecosystem south of where dams are built)
- 176Ecosystem Engineer example (arctic foxes)Modify environment for more productivity
Bring animals to den to consume (carcasses decomposed and some higher levels of nutrient turn over)
When raising pups, pee and poo in area which ass to nutrient turn over
Provides more visitation from animals - 177Criticism of keystone speciesOversimplification of complex interactions
Broadly applied to too many members of communities
Definitions have loose boundaries - 178Community dynamicsComposition and structure may change radically to abiotic and biotic changes
Disturbance is any strong, short-lobes disruption to a community that changes distribution of living and/or nonliving resources - 1793 factors of disturbance and its impacts- Type of disturbance
- Frequency
- Severity
Most occur with predictable frequency and severity - 180Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis (IDH)Local species diversity is maximized when ecological disturbance is neither too rare nor too frequent
Type I: doesn't wipe out organs regularly
Type II: high levels of species diversity
Type III: too frequent causing extinction - 181Succession (primary and secondary)Recovery following disturbance
Primary: soil building occurring after disturbance removed soil and organisms; ecosystem starts over
Secondary: rapid rebuilding of community since soil is still present; wiped out remains but solid still present
End result is mature ecosystem, and the mature assembly is called climax community - 182Rate of species replacementDriven by:
- Traits of species involved; how they can survive and reproduce
- How species interact
Historical and environmental circumstances (size of area and weather conditions); more abiotic descriptive factors of environment - 183Pioneer species- r-strategists
- high fecundity and low survivorship (low competitive ability)
- Weedy life history (resilient, reproduce quickly, do well in environments with not a lot of resources)
- change abiotic voisinions to make habitat less severe - 184FacilitationDirect interaction where 1 species facilities entry of another (benefits both; drives succession)
Often studied at individual; level but consequences are observed at community level - 185ToleranceNeutral effect (both species coexist)
- 186Inhibition1 species imparts cost to another (competitive exclusion)
- 187Species Richness vs. Species DiversitySpecies richness: how many species present in a given community
Species diversity: weighted measure incorporating the species' relative abundance - 188Islands and species diversityHabitat patchiness for colonizing species
Island = body of water surrounded by land; expanse of forest surrounded by grasslands; alpine field surrounded by forests at lower elevation (isolated areas) - 189Rate of Colonization and EquilibriumNew species arriving
decreases; more species colonized island (fewer new species can colonize)
Equilibrium: no net flow of organisms into and out of environment - 190Theory of Island BiogeographyNumber of species and rate of extinction or immigration changes with size of island and distance from mainland
Small islands/Far from mainland = lower immigration rates; higher rates of extinction (equilibrium shifts left)
Larger islands/Near mainland = higher immigration rates; lower rates of extinction (equilibrium shifts right) - 191Species-area relationshipRelationship between island size and species number
Positively correlated (as area increases, number of species increases)
For every 10-fold increase in area = doubling of # of species
90% reduction in area = half number of species - 192Ecosystem ecologyStudy of processes that link the physical and biological Earth and how they influence each other
Carbon cycle: photosynthesis and respiration (short term); physical processes (long term)
Carbon and energy transferred through ecosystems via species interactions
Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles through ecosystems - 193CO2 during specific seasonsSpring: CO2 accumulates (less photosynthesis; lots of cellular respiration)
Summer: CO2 decreases (more photosynthesis) - 194Short-Term Carbon CycleAmount of CO2 removed by photosynthesis and amount returned by respiration are about equal
- 195CO2 added to atmosphere by...- Geological inputs
- Biological inputs
- Human activity - 196CO2 removed from atmosphere by...- Geologic removal
- Biological processes - 197Increases in CO2 and Industrial RevolutionSampled ice cores (area undisturbed) to find normal atmospheric condition
Contained air trapped over the past 1000 years
Levels remained steady for more than 1000 years, but increased in mid 1800s (industrial revolution) - 198Carbon Isotopes12C: 99% of all C atoms
13C: ~1% of all C atoms
14C: 1 ppt of all atmospheric carbon
Plants incorporate 12C over 13C in biomolecules
Organic matter contains higher proportion of 12C as a result
Carbon released from other sources (volcanic gases to dissolved sea water) has higher proportion of 13C
Ratio of 13C to 12C declined
14C is decreasing steadily
Increase in Co2 from source that is 13C depleted (organic matter) - 199CO2 increase caused by humans- C entering atmosphere was 14C-depleted
- Modern plant vegetation contains too much 14C to be the source
- 14C created continually in atmosphere, and taken up by living organisms; once it dies, 14C radioactively decays
- Ancient organic matter is isotopically similar to what is added to the atmosphere
- Support C is anthropogenic in origin (from burning ancient organic matter)
0- Humans add 40 bmt of C to atmosphere each year - 200CO2 sources- Power plants, airplanes, ships, automobiles
- Conversion of forests to agriculture our pastureland and the burning of forests
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- Biology Flashcards on Part 1, created by Nikki Adams on 15/04/2024.
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