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Jess Mead Psychology Inglês 125 flashcards

Flashcards do conjunto (125)

  1. 1What is 'an adaptive process where the tendency to perform a specific behaviour, emotion, and/or thought is changed by experience'?Learning
  2. 2What is 'any effects of the environment mediated by a sensory system'?Experience
  3. 3Some common feature of this definition: - There is a change (may be invisible) - Change is lasting - Experience and practice - Learning situation is important What is the word?Learning!
  4. 4What are two major ways of learning? Each involves a cause-and-effect relationship between the environment?Non-associative: e.g. habituation
    Associative: e.g. conditioning
  5. 5What is habituation?A 'getting used to it' response to a novel stimulus
    'the decline and eventual disappearance of a reflexive response when the same stimulus is repeatedly presented'
  6. 6Describe the process of habituation1. An orienting response. e.g. head turning toward the stimulus
    2. After prolonged exposure, you no longer have an orienting response. you have learned that the stimulus has no special significance
  7. 7Why is habituation adaptive?It allows you to save energy against things that are not deemed important, and therefore you don't have to be distracted by petty events
  8. 8Name the three key figures in the history of associative learningIvan Pavlov
    John Watson
    B F Skinner
  9. 9What is the fundamental approach of BEHAVIOURISM to associative learning?We measure behaviour to infer learning. This is limited to the observable effects of learning, not necessarily what the behaviour is caused by (e.g. goals of the organism)
  10. 10What is associative learning?Forming new associations - connecting stimuli with each other and with behaviour
  11. 11What are some of the benefits of associative learning?Avoiding danger, finding food, learning emotional responses to important situations
  12. 12What are some examples of the deficits in associative learning?Incorrect effects of reward and punishment, phobias, addicitions
  13. 13Habituations, innate response tendencies (reflexes), maturation, fatigue, changes due to physiological/motivational states or changes due to evolution are NOT examples of...?Associative learning.
  14. 14What is 'the study of mental processes such as perceiving, attending, remembering and reasoning'?Cognitive psychology
  15. 15Wilhelm Wundt (and the method of introspection), Hermann Ebbinghaus (and the empirical study of memory) and William James (and the principles of psychology) are part of what historical period within psychology?The early emergence of cognition (before the rise of behaviourism)
  16. 16What were some of the reasons behind the rise of behaviourism?Psychology is an objective study of behaviour and not the mind. Introspection cannot be measured objectively & theories should be as simple as possible (Watson, 1913). Metaphor of the 'black box': inner workings could not be seen. Tabula rasa
  17. 17What did ethology in the 1950's prove?Tabula rasa could not be true - different species have different genetic predispositions that determine behaviour. (mating, territory marking, nest building)
  18. 18What were some of the arguments for the re-emergence of cognition?The generativity of human language cannot be explained in behaviourist terms. Information processing in the 'black box' is a legitimate topic of discussion as such processes are, after all, initiated in a machine (the computer metaphor)
  19. 19What model is this an example of: - a neuron can fire (1) or not fire (0) - we have a central processing unit, with input devices, storage and output devicesThe information-processing model
  20. 20Experiments, neuroscientific investigations, modelling and comparative studies are all examples of ________Approaches to studying the mind
  21. 21What is an example of low-level cognition?Cognition that is close to the input from our senses (vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell). Including attention and memory
    Our mental representations correspond to objects and events in the environment
  22. 22What is an example of high level cognition?Cognition that is abstract, conceptual and relational. It has been RE-PROCESSED by the human cognitive system. Imagery, language and intelligence.
    They include abstract mental representations, and are derived from many individual experiences.
  23. 23In past conflicts between learning and cognition, cognitivists complained that behaviourism......?- Ignored basic mental processes like memory, attention, imagery, etc.
    - Assumed equipotentiality and could not properly explain different learning within individuals and across species.
  24. 24In past conflicts between learning and cognition, behaviourists complained that cognitivism......?- Made merely inferences about mental constructs
    - Made no reference to physiology
    - Ignored emotion and motivational valence
  25. 25Modern learning theorists (behaviourists) now acknowledge (with regards to cognitivism)...- They appreciate the biological constraints
    - They acknowledge the utility of cognitive constructs in theory and practice (e.g. CBT)
  26. 26Modern cognitivists now acknowledge (with regards to behaviourism)...- They appreciate the utility and power of learning principles
    - They research the relation between the brain and cognition, and apply associationism in theories of the mind.
  27. 27What is the Free Energy Principle?A global theory about how the brain works. It tries to provide a unified account of action, perception and learning for all adaptive systems. We must maintain our state despite a constantly shifting environment. We want low entropy (surprise)
  28. 28CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: What is the US?The unconditioned stimulus. A stimulus that evokes an INNATE response
  29. 29CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: What is the UR?The unconditioned response. An INNATE response to a stimulus
  30. 30CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: What is the CS?The conditioned stimulus. The response from this stimulus is LEARNED
  31. 31CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: What is the CR?The conditioned response. This is a response to a stimulus that is LEARNED
  32. 32Name the basic phases of classical conditioning.Habituation: CS =/= CR
    (BUT: US = UR)
    Acquisition: CS + US = UR/CR
    (THEN: CS = CR)
    Extinction: CS (alone) =/= UR after a while
  33. 33What two factors influence the acquisition curve in classical conditioning?The intensity of the US (the more intense (such as shocks), the more rapid learning)
    The ordering and timing (the CS coming before the UQ is better).
  34. 34In classical conditioning, what happens in delay conditioning-short?The CS is played shortly before and during the US. The ISI (time played before start of US) is relatively short
  35. 35In classical conditioning, what happens in delay conditioning-long?The CS is played before and during the US. The ISI (time played before the start of US) is quite long
  36. 36In classical conditioning, what is trace conditioning?When the end of the CS occurs, there is a 'trace interval', and then the start of the US occurs
  37. 37In classical conditioning, what is simultaneous conditioning?The CS and the US occur (beginning and end) at exactly the same time
  38. 38In classical conditioning, what is backward conditioning?The US occurs before the CS
  39. 39In classical conditioning and regarding delay conditioning: is there an optimal ISI?It depends on what is being studies. E.G. eyelid reflex (200ms) or taste aversion (.75 hours)
  40. 40What are the two types of Pavlovian conditioning?Excitatory conditioning: where the CS predicts the occurrence of the US (e.g. experimenter with food)
    Inhibitory conditioning: where the CS predicts the absence of a US (e.g. someone who never brings food)
  41. 41In Pavlovian conditioning, some stimulus is inhibitory. However, how do we know that someone has learned something about the inhibitory stimulus ?Summation tests and retardation tests
  42. 42Describe the retardation testUsed to test if an inhibitory stimulus is being perceived as inhibitory, a neural stimulus and an inhibitory stimulus are both trained to become excitatory. We should show slower learning to the originally inhibitory stimulus
  43. 43Describe the summation testUsed to test if an inhibitory stimulus is being perceived as inhibitory, the summation test involves training two excitatory stimuli and pairing one with the inhibitory stimulus. We should show slower learning to the N + I rather than N
  44. 44What are 3 possible results of extinction?1. Spontaneous recovery (the CR reappears (later) when CS is presented)
    2. Renewal (when learning is contextual the renewal of the context elicits the CR)3. Reinstatement (presenting the US alone and then CS = CR)
  45. 45What happens during extinction?This is still hotly debated!
  46. 46What are 3 hidden assumptions of classical conditioning? What tells us that these are wrong?1. Any 2 stimuli can be paired together (equipotentiality)
    2. The more 2 stimuli are paired, the stronger we will associate them (contiguity)
    3. Conditioning changes trial to trail in a regular way (contingency)
    BLOCKING/SUPERCONDITIONING
  47. 47What is blocking?Nothing is learned from a novel CS that is paired with an excitatory CS (one that is already very predictive of the US)
  48. 48What does blocking disprove?equipotentiality: blocking the light with the shock didn't lead to conditioning contiguity: the control and experimental group had the light/shock pairing the same number of times
  49. 49What is superconditioning?learning is faster if a novel CS is paired with an inhibitory CS (one that predicts an absence of the US)
  50. 50What is latent inhibition (or the pre-exposure effect)?When you are presented with the CS numerous times before conditioning, you will have a slower conditioning to that CS compared to a new stimulus
  51. 51What are the two potential reasons for CS pre-exposure effects?1. Habituation
    2. Conditioned inhibition
  52. 52Why are the CS pre-exposure effects not due to habituation?Because CS pre-exposure is context-specific, whereas habituation is not (you wouldn't re-react to a sound after moving room)
  53. 53Why is CS pre-exposure effects not due to conditioned inhibition?It passes the retardation test, but not the summation test.
  54. 54What is generalisation?Other (similar) stimuli may also produce the CR. The more similar it is to the original CS, the more likely it is to elicit the CR. However, each exposure of CS-US will refine this association, so generalisation will not last over time (evolutionary benefits)
  55. 55What is discrimination?Early on during acquisition, generalisation may cause the learner to respond to a variety of stimuli. As learning continues, the organism will learn which CS is best associated with the US and they will discriminate
  56. 56Explain the difference between research and theoryResearch will often identify a phenomena, while theory will attempt to explain why that phenomena occurs
  57. 57What is a 'model' in psychology?A formal attempt to explain a wide body of research. It makes predictions that can be tested, and may be mathematical
  58. 58The Rescorla-Wagner model is a model that attempts to explain classical conditioning. What does it claim?The level of conditioning is a result between the expected strength of the US and the actual strength of the US (expectation is based on prior experience). The CR gets stronger is the CS-US pair is SURPRISING.
  59. 59How does the Rescorla-Wagner model explain blocking?The neutral stimulus does not change how surprised the subject is at the excitatory stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus being paired
  60. 60How does the Rescorla-Wagner model explain superconditioning?When the old stimulus is inhibitory and a new stimulus is excitatory, there is surprise that the US is being presented. --> faster learning.
  61. 61What does the Rescorla-Wagner model have trouble explaining?CS pre-exposure (latent inhibition)
  62. 62Why is taste aversion different to typical classical conditioning?You can require taste aversion after one single acquisition (instead of dozens)
    The time between you eating food and getting sick can be as long as 24 hours (whereas normally immediately is best)
    EVOLUTION BABY
  63. 63What does the Garcia effect tell us?It defies equipotentiality, and shows us that some associations that are more natural are learned faster than others (e.g. taste -> sickness, or noise/light -> shock)
  64. 64Within classical conditioning, what are prepared associations and what do they tell us?We are more prepared to have a fear response to a fear-relevant image than a fear-irrelevant image.
    This can also be shown in racial attitudes from our preconceived stereotypes
    They also have a faster acquisition and a slower extinction
  65. 65What is an argument (Siegel, 1982) for why heroin users die after taking a usual dose in an unusual environment?There are environmentally similar cues before it is taken, and the body responds by ramping up its tolerance response. Without them, overdose is more likely. Context conditioning affects your tolerance
  66. 66What is systematic desensitisation?A way of lessening phobias by gradually exposing the client to the phobic object in a gradual way (including relaxation therapy and gradually moving up the fear hierarchy)
  67. 67If classical conditioning is learning by ASSOCIATION, operant conditioning is learning by....REINFORCEMENT
  68. 68What are some of the key differences between Pavlovian and Operant Conditioning?Pavlovian involves reflexive associations, operant relies on the consequences of past actions
    Pavlovian results in reflexive actions, operant results in an increase/decrease of voluntary behaviours.
  69. 69That is the principle of operant conditioning?A behaviour that results in a reward tends to be repeated/become more frequent
    A behaviour that results in a punishment tends to be avoided/become less frequent
  70. 70What did Thorndike do and what did he discover (with operant conditioning)?The Law of Effect: the tendency to perform an action is increased if rewarded, weakened if not
    He discovered that cats in puzzle boxes will escape more quickly with experience
  71. 71Why is waiting for a certain behaviour not a good way of teaching new behaviours?Because it may not be natural and occur in the real world.
  72. 72How does real world operant conditioning differ from that in an experiment?There's no experimenter/trainer
    There is real world reinforcement (e.g. foraging)
    The animal adapts behaviourally to the environmental feedback
  73. 73Why does superstitious behaviour occur?It is part of an apparent belief that things we do cause randomly occurring rewards/punishments (even if there is actually no true association between a behaviour and an outcome)
  74. 74What is SHAPING (operant conditioning)?Approximating the behaviour of interest and rewarding it as it gets closer to the target behaviour
  75. 75What is BAITING (operant conditioning)?The process of placing a reinforcer in a particular location and then reinforcing an animal's movement to that location
  76. 76What is MIMICRY (operant conditioning)?Reinforcing a behaviour that is similar to your own
  77. 77What is SCULPTING (operant conditioning)?Guiding an animal to physically perform an action and then reinforcing them when they do that, until they can do it on command
  78. 78What are 4 ways in which we can teach new behaviours? (operant conditioning)Shaping
    Baiting
    Mimicry
    Sculpting
  79. 79What is chaining?Acquiring a behaviour is easier when done in bits and pieces. Chaining involves breaking up the behaviour into those pieces and learning them in stages
  80. 80How is forward chaining different to backward chaining?Forward chaining - working up in steps
    Backward chaining - doing everything for the subject -1, then -2, then -3 steps etc.
    Backward chaining is often best
  81. 81What is a REINFORCER?Something aimed to INCREASE behaviour
  82. 82What is a PUNISHER?Something aimed to DECREASE behaviour
  83. 83What is a POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT?ADDING something to INCREASE behaviour
  84. 84What is a NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT?DECREASING something to INCREASE behaviour?
  85. 85What is POSITIVE PUNISHMENT?ADDING something to DECREASE behaviour
  86. 86What is NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT?DECREASING something to DECREASE behaviour?
  87. 87What is BRIDGING?Teaching an association between a stimulus that can be delivered immediately, and a subsequent reward (e.g. a whistle IMPLIES fish)
  88. 88What are two main types of reinforcement schedules?Continuous reinforcement (every occurrence)
    Partial reinforcement (only some instances)
  89. 89What are four main types of partial reinforcement schedules?Fixed ratio: Every nth time
    Variable ratio: on average, every nth time
    Fixed interval: first behaviour after n seconds
    Variable interval: on average, first behaviour after n seconds
  90. 90Why is there a dip between intervals in fixed intervals, but not ratio?Because with fixed instances, they know that something has to happen. With variable instances, anything can happen at any time, so it trains persistence
  91. 91What is the most successful reinforcement schedule to the least successful reinforcement schedule (variable/fixed, ratio/interval)VR, FR, VI, FI
  92. 92Which schedule of reinforcement (ratio vs interval) is most effective?Ratio
  93. 93What schedule of reinforcement (continuous vs partial) is most effective?Continuous
  94. 94What is more effective (punishment or reinforcement)?Reinforcement. However, this is not always possible
  95. 95What are some of the problems with punishment?Punishment isn't as permanent, and reduces trust/increases aggression (can create more unpredictable behaviour)
  96. 96What are some ways to punish effectively? (list 2 or 3)1. allow no escape (minimise avoidance)
    2. as intense as possible
    3. continuous schedule
    4. no delay
    5. over a shot period of time (keeps relationship)
    6. no subsequent reinforcement (minimise confusion)
    7. reinforce appropriate behaviour
    8. watch for side effects
  97. 97What are the three main reward variables?Drive: you don't want too much (erratic), or too little (not motivated)
    Size: larger is better (up until a point (law of diminishing returns))
    Delay: works best when reinforcer is given right away
  98. 98Describe the three-term contingencyThe discriminative stimulus (sets the occasion)
    The operant response (the behaviour)
    The outcome (the consequence, reinforcer/punisher)
  99. 99With regards to the three-term contingency, what is stimulus control?The discriminative stimulus serves to set the scene and define whether a behaviour is reinforced or punished. Much of our behaviour depends on the setting in which we are in, thus it is under stimulus control
  100. 100With regards to stimulus control, what is stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination?Generalisation: the general tendency to respond in the presence of new stimuli that have similar physical properties or have been associated with the stimulus
    Discrimination: the degree to which different stimuli set the occasion for particular responses
  101. 101Thorndike thought that a response hd to be performed and a consequence experienced for operant learning to occur. However, Tolman showed that this is not true. Why?Responses: rats running a maze vs rats being transported through a maze learned the same way.
    Consequences: rats acquire a cognitive map of their environment even if not rewarded (however error rate MASSIVELY drops when they are)
  102. 102Thorndike thought that learning involved the pairing of Simulus and Response without the inclusion of the _______. However, Tolman argued that it becomes part of an associative network (____, _____, ____) because the animal develops an expectationReinforcer
    Stimulus, Response, Reinforcer
  103. 103Why is the 'monkey rejects uneven pay' video incorrect?It doesn't matter if another monkey is there, just the availability of a better reward
  104. 104What are Skinner's operational definitions of reinforcement and punishmentReinforcer: increases rate of behaviour
    Punisher: decreases rate of behaviour
  105. 105What is the drive reduction theory? (Hull and Spence, 1940s)If homeostasis is disrupted, then a drive is observed (thirst, hunger, etc). Drive is an unpleasant state that the animal wants to reduce. Therefore the negative reinforcer of reducing the drive is a major cause of learning.
  106. 106In the context of drive reduction theory, what are secondary reinforcers?Reinforcers that are not biological (such as satisfying thirst or hunger). Instead, they can allude to that, e.g. a whistle blow, or being given money
  107. 107In the context of drive reduction theory, what is sensation seeking?A form of novel stimuli whereby some reinforcement comes from raised stimulation (e.g. wheels for mice/rate), or working to get access to a window (monkeys, people)
  108. 108What are intercranial reinforcers?Using an electrical stimulation in the brain as a positive reinforcer
  109. 109What is stimuli aren't reinforcers, but ____ are (e.g. not water, but DRINKING) The 'bliss point' of behaviour is when all things are ___/____. The baseline is how often you access these resources.Behaviours
    Equal/available
  110. 110What is Premack's Principle?A high probability behaviour can reinforce a low probability behaviour. For example, reinforcers work through things that you wouldn't be likely to do and rewarding organisms with things that they would be likely to do. (e.g. rewarding study with Netflix). MORE PROBABLE BEHAVIOURS WILL REINFORCE LESS PROBABLE BEHAVIOURS
  111. 111What is escape learning?Emitting a response that terminates an aversive consequence (negative reinforcement)
  112. 112What is avoidance learning?emitting a response to prevent the occurrence of an aversive consequence altogether
  113. 113What kind of learning is exhibited when animals are tested on a floor with 1/2 electrical shocks and a light dimming to indicate the shock arrivingFirst - escape learning. After a while, avoidance learning takes over
  114. 114What psychological phenomena can avoidance learning help us to understand?Phobias. They are maintained because we often never encounter the aversive stimulus again. This makes sense biologically (to learn things as 'dangerous' quickly)
  115. 115What are the ways to reduce avoidance learning clinically?Exposure training
    - flooding and response prevention
    - modelling appropriate behaviour (e.g. feeling calm and relaxed)
  116. 116In Seligman's 1967 learned helplessness experiment, what happened what happened when animals were first exposed to: a) escapable shock b) inescapable shocka) avoidance learning
    b) learned helplessness (depression)
  117. 117What is the behavioural product of learned helplessness?Animals start to behave as if their behaviour has no effect on what happens to them - they've learned that they are helpless
  118. 118How do you combat learned helplessness?Place the animal in a situation where it cannot fail, so it learns that it has some control. An initial experience of control actually 'immunises' against learned helplessness
  119. 119In humans, our attributions can harm or protect us. What are these attributions and which ones are more depression promoting?Internal vs external (bc of me/not bc of me)
    Stable vs unstable (my traits/a one-off)Glibal vs specific (applies to all contexts/one context)
    Depression promoting attributes: internal, stable, global
  120. 120Behavioural therapies use ____ principles in an aim to modify situation inappropriate behaviours. This takes a ______ analysis and the use of empirically validated approaches to modify specific behavioursConditioning
    Functional
  121. 121With regard to behavioural therapies, what is the point of a functional analysis?it helps us to target our treatment and see what is the problem behaviour and when it occurs. It also tries to determine what reinforcers are maintaining the behaviour. It is done on a case-by-case basis and involves dividing complex behaviours into more manageable ones.
  122. 122With regards to the functional analysis used in behavioural therapies, Kanfer and Phillips (1970) argued that the essential 'behavioural equation' for a functional analysis included:S: prior Stimulation (what happened b4)
    O: the biological state of the Organism (skills/state of organism at the time)
    R: the Response repertoire (the behaviour)
    C: the Consequence (Short term)
    K: the contingency relationship (future effects)
  123. 123The PPP (positive parenting programme) is an example of _____ conditioning in action. What does it do?Operant
    It focusses on reinforcement instead of punishment, and also teaches other principles like chaining, making consequences more effective etc.
  124. 124A lot of CBT is based in _____ conditioningOperant
    It focusses on 'thinking errors' and 'core beliefs' which is cognitive, but also emphasises exercises founded in operant conditioning
  125. 125Conditioning is often the basis of lean alternative explanations that need to be ruled out to demonstrate animal smarts. True or false?True

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Psychology (PSYC2050) FlashCards sobre Flashies, criado por Jess Mead em 12-03-2018.
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Jess Mead
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