Flashcards
Memory
Flashcards do conjunto (76)
- 1What is meant by capacity?How much data can be stored
- 2What is the capacity of LTM?Virtually unlimited
- 3How can capacity of STM be assessed?Using digit span
- 4What did Jacobs find when testing capacity of STM using digit span?That average span for recalling digits was higher than recalling letters
-He suggests it could be because we only have 9 digits and 26 letters in the alphabet - 5What did Miller conclude about capacity of STM after reviewing psychological research?That the span of our immediate memory is usually around seven items- can be more or less (7+/-2)
Also found people can remember five words as easy as five letters showing we clunk information together to remember more - 6Weaknesses related to capacity of STM research?1)The capacity may be even more limited than 7+/-2
-A psychologist who reviewed studies into capacity of STM found STM is likely to be limited to around four chunks
-This means the lower end of Miller's range is more appropriate (7-2 =5)
2) Individual differences- capacity isnt the same for everyone. Research has found recall of digit span usually increases with age
-Could be due to increase in brain capacity or could be that when you get older you learn techniques to help you remember more such as chunking - 7What does duration mean in relation to memory?How long we can remember data for until it is no longer available
- 8What is the duration of LTM?Virtually unlimited- could potentially last forever
- 9What is the duration of STM?Not very long unless you keep repeating the data.. varies from around 15-30 seconds
- 10Who studied duration of STM and what did they find?Peterson- study on 24 students over 8 trials
-Each given a consonant syllable and a three digit number- they were asked to recall the consonant syllable after retnetion times of 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds and during this time they had to count backwards from 3
-Results showed that duration of STM is very low and suggested to be under 18 seconds unless rehearsal is present - 11Who studied the duration of LTM and what did they find?Bahrick et al- tested 400 people of various ages on their memory of classmates using photo recognition tests and also free recall of names of those in the class
Those ppt's tested within 15 years of graduating were good at photo recognition but after 48 years, this declined by about 20% in accuracy
For the free recall, it was around 60% accurate after 15 years of graduating and dropped to 30% accurate after 48 years - 12Weakness of the testing of duration of STM1)Testing was artificial- memorising syllables doesn't reflect everyday memory activities and therefore has little application to real life
2) STM results could have been due to displacement- Peterson's study of using semantic activities during retention period and counting back may have overwritten the memory and therefore may have interfered with results - 13What is coding?The way we store data - can either be done acoustically or semantically
- 14How are STM and LTM coded?STM- acoustically
LTM- semantically - 15Who studied the coding of memories and what did they find?Baddeley- used lists of words that either all acoustically sounded similar like cat, can etc or words that are semantically similar like big, large, huge to test how well people remember both
Found that ppt's remembered acoustically similar words in STM but not LTM and vice versa - 16Weakness of coding memory?1) Baddeley may not have tested LTM- he waited 20 minutes after ppt's had heard the word lists- debatable whether this is actually testing LTM
2) LTM and STM may not be exclusively coded acoustically or semantically -studies have shown evidence of both types of our memory can rely on both at some points which makes it seem our coding varies according to circumstances - 17What is the multi-store model?An explanation of memory based upon 3 different memory stores and how info is transferred between this
- 18What is the 'sensory register'Multi-store model
This is the place where all of our sensory information is held for each of our senses and the corresponding parts of our brain
Capacity of this is very large- constantly receiving information but we don't really pay attention to this and so it remains in the sensory register for milliseconds - 19What does 'attention' meanMulti-store model
This is the first step to remembering something
If someones attention is focused on one of the sensory stores then this data is then transferred to our STM - 20What is meant by 'Short-term memory' on the multi-store modelInfo is held in our STM so it can be used for immediate tasks such as solving a maths problem
Has a limited duration and will disappear quickly unless rehearsed (maintenance rehearsal)
Info will also disappear out of STM if new information enters which pushes out the old information- happens because STM has a limited capacity - 21What is 'maintenance rehearsal'Multi-store model
Repetition will help keep information in our STM and eventually will create a LTM
The more a memory is rehearsed, the better the information is remembered - 22What is meant by 'long-term memory' in the multi-store modelLTM is potentially unlimited in both duration and capacity- if you feel you have forgotten something you once remembered it may have never been a LTM
- 23What is meant by 'retrieval'Multi-store model
This is the process of getting information back from LTM- it needs to pass through STM and then it can be accessed - 24Strength of the multi-store model1) There is supporting evidence- lab studies have found support for the existence of seperate short term and long term stores
-Studies using brain scanning techniques have also shown differences between STM and LTM - 25Weakness of multi-store model1) Multi-store model could be too simple- some research contradicts the fact that there are seperate short term and long term stores- working memory model could be a better explanation as it splits STM into sections which help us to understand more clearly
-This is the same for LTM also as there is evidence for different types of LTM eg. maintenenance rehearsal can help us explain why semantic memories can be kept but doesn't explain why episodic memories are stored - 26Why was the working memory model createdBaddeley and Hitch thought that STM wasn't just one store but a number of different stores
-They claimed that if someone is doing two things at once and they are both visual tasks then they will perform less well than if doing them seperately
-They also said that if you do two things at once, one visual and one involving sound, there won't be an interference
-This suggests there is one store for visual processing and a separate one for sound so they came up with a new model - 27What is involved in the working memory model?
- 28What is meant by 'central executive'Working memory model
-In control of monitoring and coordinating all other functions in the model
-Allocates which tasks the brain will be using it's resources on in any given time
-Has a very limited capacity- can't attend to too many things at once and has no capacity to store data - 29What is meant by 'phonological loop'Working memory model
-Deals with auditory information
-Has limited capacity
-Further subdivided :
1) Phonological store- holds words you hear like an inner ear
2) An articulatory process which involves words you hear or seen are silently repeated (looped) like an inner voice - this is a form of maintenance rehearsal - 30What is meant by 'visio-spatial sketch pad'Working memory model
-Used when you have to plan a spatial task such as getting from one room to another
-Visual/spatial info is temporarily stored there
-A psychologist suggested it can be divided:
1) A visual document which stores information about visual items eg.colour
2) An inner scribe which stores arrangement of objects in visual field - 31What is meant by 'episodic buffer'Working memory model
-Has limited capacity like all the other stores
-Baddeley added this as a general store which held bits of information relating to both visual and acoustic info
-Receives input from the other sources, temporarily stores this and then integrates it in order to construct a mental episode of what is being experienced- also sends info to the LTM - 32Strength of working memory model1) Covers the idea of dual task performance- Hitch and Baddeley supported the existence of central executive in a study of theirs by getting ppt's to do two tasks.
-Task 1 occupied central executive- ppt's given statement A followed by B and shown two letters such as AB and asked to say true or false.
Task 2 either involved articulatory loop and got asked tto say 'the the the' repeatedley or it involved both the central executive and articulatory loop by saying random digits.
-They found that task 1 was slower when task 2 involved both central executive and articulatory loop - this therefore demonstrates dual task performance and shows that central executive is one of the components of the model - 33Weakness of working memory model1) Some of the evidence supporting the WMM comes from brain damaged patients
-Could be an issue as brain injury is traumatic which could change someones behaviour so a person performs worse on tasks
-Also, these individuals may also have difficulties paying attention and therefore may under perform on tasks - 34What are the three different types of LTM?Episodic- events/experiences
Semantic- facts
Procedural- skills - 35What are the elements of an episodic memory?Episodic- event/experience
-We may remember details about event/ the context of it and also the emotions we felt at the time - 36What is a semantic memory?Semantic - facts
Example: 2+2=4 - 37What is a procedural memory?Procedural- skills
Example: knowing how to ride a bike
These memories are usually acquired through repetition and practice- we are less aware of these memories as they become automatic and it's important that they are automatic so that we can focus our attention on other tasks while performing these skills - 38Strength of the types of LTM?1) There is evidence supporting these three types of memory from brain scans- this research shows us that different areas of our brain are active when the different kinds of LTM are active such as the hippocampus being related to episodic memories
- 39Weakness of the different types of LTM?1) Distinguishing between episodic (events) and semantic (facts) can be hard. It's been questioned that semantic memories can't be formed without episodic.
-Researchers have looked at patients with Alzheimer's disease and found some patients have the ability to form new episodic memories but not semantic ones which shows a dissociation between them however, this isn't enough evidence that the two really are distinct as there has been contradicting evidence in a separate study which suggests episodic memories could be a gateway to semantic memories yet it is possible for semantic memories to form separately - 40What is included in the 'interference' explanation of forgettingRetroactive/ proactive interference
- 41What is meant by retroactive interference?When learning something new interferes with past learning
Psychologist: gave ppt's a list of nonsense syllables to learn for 6 minutes and then after a retention period, asked ppt's to recall the lists.
-Performance was found to be less good if ppt's had been given an intervening task in retention period as it it would have caused retroactive interference with info previously learnt - 42What is meant by proactive interference?Pro= p...past
When past learning interferes with trying to learn something new
A psychologist analysed findings from several studies and found that when ppt's have to learn a series of words they don't learn lists encountered later on.
As seen on this graph, the more lists ppt's learn, the worse their overall recall would be bevause proactive interference would make it harder to learn several lists
- 43In the interference explanation of forgetting, what did psychologists experiment with?The similarity of materials- they gave participants a list of 10 adjectives (list A) and once these were learnt there was a rest of 10 minutes where they had to learn list B and then recall
If list B was a list of synonyms for list A then recall was poor but it list B was nonsense, this had less effect and if list B was numbers this had the least effect.
This shows interference is strongest the more similar the items are - 44What is the everyday example that Baddeley and Hitch investigated in relation to the interference explanation for forgettingThey investigated how interference effecs rugby players recalling names of teams they had played against over a season.
-Some of the players had played every game but some had had time of due to injury. If interval theory is correct then than those players who played most games should forget more because of interference which is what they found - 45Weaknesses of interference as an explanation of forgetting1) Research is fairly artificial- most supporting research for both proactive and retroactive has been conducted in a lab
-Means findings may not relate to everyday uses of our memory and therefore can't be applied to everyday situations
2)Interference effects do occur in real life but not very often- it's considered to be an unimportant explanation for forgetting as the two memories have to be very similar for forgetting to occur
3) Individual differences- some people less effected by proactive interference than others - 46What is the main reason for forgetting things in our LTM?Retrieval failure- occurs due to the absence of cues
- 47What is the encoding specificity principle?Retrieval failure
-Psychologists proposed that our memory is most effective if information that was present at time of encoding is available at time of retrieval
-Also suggests that cues don't have to be exactly right but closer the cue is to the original item, the more useful it is in helping us to remember - 48What study was conducted to demonstrate the importance of cues in retrieval?Psychologists got ppt's to learn words belonging to different categories eg- apple-fruit, orange-fruit
Ppt's then had two different recall conditions-
1) either they had to do a free recall
2) or they were given cues in the form of category name such as 'fruit' known as 'cue recall'
More people recalled words in the 'cue recall' condition- this gives evidence that cues that have been encoded at time in learning have a clear link to remembering - 49Apart from cues, what else do we tend to remember when we learn new information?Retrieval failure
-Where we were
-Or how we felt
If we are reminded of these particular places or feelings then it may trigger memories - 50What is context-dependent forgetting in relation to retrieval failure and what study was done to test this?A psychologist arranged students to be tested before a course began and then they were tested each week
Some of these students were tested in there teaching room with their usual instructor or a different instructor whereas others were tested in a different room with their instructor or different instructor (4 conditions)
Those that were tested in the same room with same instructor performed best- familiar surroundings may have acted as cues - 51What is meant by 'state-dependent forgetting' in relation to retrieval failure and what study was done to test this?It's been suggested that the mental state you're in at the time of learning can also act as a cue.
A study was conducted by a psychologist who asked male ppt's to remember a list of words when drunk or sober
Ppt's were asked to recall the lists when some were sober and some had to get drunk again- the scores showed that information is better recalled when in the same state - 52Strengths of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting1) Lots of research support- all has relevance to everyday life
2) High ecological validity- can be applied to real life examples such as you'll do better in an exam if you take it where you revised for it - 53Weakness of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting1) Retrieval cues not very effective- information we are learning is linked to more than just cues. They do explain everyday forgetting but they don't explain everything we can't remember such as more complex information
- 54What is a cognitive interview?Police came up with this interview technique for witnesses of crime which encourages them to remember as much as possible about the crime
- 55What are the four sections of a cognitive interview?1) Mental re installment of original context
2) Report everything
3) Change order
4) Change perspective - 56What is meant by ' mental reinstallment of original context'Cognitive interview
Interviewer encourages witness to mentally recreate both the physical and psychological environment of the original incident
eg: think about that day..what was you doing, what was the weather like - 57What is meant by 'report everything'Cognitive interview
Interviewer encourages witness to report every single detail of event without editing anything out even if it seems irrelevant
eg: please don't leave anything out - 58What is meant by 'change order'Cognitive interview
Interviewer may try asking witness to recall events from the end to the start as it prevents our schemas from stepping in and influencing what we think happened
eg: tell me what happened backwards - 59What is meant by 'change perspective'Cognitive interview
Interviewer asks witness to recall from multiple perspectives
eg: try to recall the incident from the perspective of another person involved in the incident - 60Weaknesses of cognitive interview1) CI may lead to a lack of quality in recall- study found a 81% increase in correct recall but 61% increase in false positives
2) Police dislike using the method- CI require more time and requires specific training which may limit being able to use them - 61What is 'eye-witness testimony'?The evidence provided in court by somebody who witnessed an incident (crime)
- 62What is one of the main issues with eye-witness testimony?Testimony may not be a reliable source of evidence
- 63What is misleading information?Supplying information which may lead to a witness' memory of a crime being altered
- 64What is a leading question?A question which suggests to a witness the answer which is desired from them
- 65What did Loftus and Palmer's leading question experiments involve and what did they find?Experiment one: students were shown 7 films of different traffic accidents- ppt's were then given a questionnaire asking them to describe whatt they'd seen
The critical question they were asked was "about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other" however, each group got different verbs to describe the crash such as 'hit, bump, smashed, collided'...
The results showed the effects of these examples of leading questions as they gave higher speeds for verbs such as 'smashed' and lower speeds for 'contacted/hit' - 66Leading questions we know cause a bias in a participants response but what else can they do and how was this demonstrated by a second study by Loftus and Palmer?Leading questions can alter information of a crime before it is stored
They got a new set of ppt's and divided them into three groups and showed a car accident clip and again asked them about the speed
Ppt's were then asked to return a week later and were asked 10 questions which including a new critical question " did you see any broken glass"?
There wasn't any broken glass in the film but those who had thought the car was travelling faster were more likely to think there was broken glass
These findings show how leading questions can actually change someones memory about an event - 67Apart from misleading questions, what else can alter witnesses memories of an events?Post- event discussion
- 68What is meant by 'conformity effect' in relation to post-event discussion as a factor of misleading information and how has this been tested in a study?Co-witnesses may reach a consensus view on what happened when in reality their views have been distorted by each other
A psychologist put ppt's in pairs where each partner watched different videos of the same event in which each included different items
Pairs in one condition were then encouraged to discuss the event before each partner individually recalled the event they had watched
A large percentage of students went on to recall items that they hadn't seen themselves but spoke about in their discussion - 69Weakness of research into misleading information as a factor which affects accuracy of EWT recall1) Loftus and Palmer's experiment has low ecological validity- lab experiment- doesn't represent real life as ppt's may not take the experiment seriously
- 70Strength of research into misleading information as a factor which affects accuracy of EWT recall1) Supporting evidence- Loftus conducted a study on Disneyland where ppt's who had been shown an image of Bugs Bunny on a Disneyland advert in the study claimed they had shaken hands with him at Disneyland even though he wasn't there as a character
- 71What is anxiety?Unpleasant emotional state often accompanied by an increased heart rate and rapid breathing
- 72How does anxiety have an effect on accuracy of recall ?Stress and anxiety has a negative effect on memory/performance
- 73What was the study done on anxiety as a factor which affects accuracy of EWT?Psychologists found that anxiety could reduce accuracy as a result of weapon focus
This was tested by asking ppt's to sit in a waiting room where they heard an argument in another room- then saw a man either carrying a pen or a knife depending on the group they were in
Ppt's then were asked to identify the man from a set of photos
Findings support the idea weapon focus effects accuracy as the percentage of people getting the correct man in the knife condition was much lower than the pen condition - 74What is weapon focus?The idea that when a weapon is in a criminal's hand it diverts attention from other features and therefore takes away attention
Typically results in accuracy of identification being affected - 75We know that anxiety can lead to inaccuracy of recall but what is the opposing argument about anxiety?Says that high anxiety can create more vivid and accurate memories
An example of this is when psychologists looked at victims or bystanders of robberies
Found those that had experienced most anxiety in this experience had best recall (the victims) - 76Weaknesses of research into anxiety as a factor which affects EWT?1) Weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety after all- could be due to surprise rather than anxiety
2) Individual differences- one extraneous variable is emotional sensitivity
Neurotic personalities rather than stable people have been found to be less accurate
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- Descrição
- A level Psychology FlashCards sobre Memory, criado por Ashleigh Johnson em 04-04-2018.
- Criado por
- Ashleigh Johnson
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